FUNDAMENTALS OF

MACHINING
Or ORTHOGONAL
MACHINING

Machining is the process of removing unwanted material

from a workpiece in the form of chips. If the workpiece is
metal, the process is often called metal cutting or metal
removal.

What makes this process so unique and difficult to analyze?

BASIC MACHINING PROCESSES

BASIC MACHINING PROCESSES

TURNING PROCESS

TURNING PROCESS

1. For a turning operation, you have selected an HSS tool and turning a hot rolled free
machining steel, Bhn 300. Your depth of cut will be 0.150 in. The diameter of the
workpiece is 1.00 inches.
a. What speed and feed would you select for this job?
b. Using a speed of 105 sfpm and a feed of 0.015, calculate the spindle rpm for this
operation.
c. Calculate the metal removal rate.
d. Calculate the cutting time for the operation with a length of cut of 4 in. and .10-in.
allowance.

MILLING PROCESS

MILLING PROCESS

MILLING PROCESS

2. For a slab milling operation using a 5-in.-diameter, 11-tooth cutter.

the feed per tooth is 0.005 in./tooth with a cutting speed of 100 sfpm
(HSS steel). Calculate the rpm of the cutter and the feed rate (fm) of
the table, then calculate the metal removal rate, MRR, where the
width of the block being machined is 2 in. and the depth of cut is 0.25
in. Calculate the time to machine (Tm) a 6-in.-long block of metal
with this Setup. Suppose you switched to a coated-carbide tool, so
you increase the cutting speed to 400 sfpm. Now recalculate the
machining time (Tm) with all the other parameters the same.

DRILLING PROCESS

D = diameter of
the drill which
rotates 2
cutting edges at
rpm Ns.
V = velocity of
outer edge of the
lip of the drill.
Ns = 12V/D.
Tm = cutting time
= (L + A)/frNs
.

where fr is the feed rate in in. per rev. The allowance A = D/2.
The MRR =
which is approximately 3DVfr

3. The power required to machine metal is related to the cutting force

(Fc) and the cutting speed. For Problem 1, estimate cutting force Fc for
this turning operation. (Hint:You have to estimate a value of HPs for this
material.)

4. In order to drill a hole in the material described in Problem 1 using an

HSS drill, you have to select a cutting speed and a feed rate. Using a
speed of 105 sfpm for the HSS drill, calculate the rpm for a -in.-diameter
drill and the MRR if the feed rate is 0.008 inches per revolution.

BROACHING PROCESS

The Tm for broaching is Tm = L /12V.

The MRR (per tooth) is 12tWV in.3/min
where V = cutting velocity in fpm,
W is the width of cut, t = rise per tooth.

Usually, 30 to 40% of the total energy goes into friction and 60

to 70% into the
shear process.

Doubling speed or depth of

cut
In general, increasing the speed, the feed, or the depth of cut will
increase the power requirement. Doubling the speed doubles the
horsepower directly. Doubling the feed or the depth of cut doubles the
cutting force Fc. In general, increasing the speed does not increase
the cutting force Fc, a surprising experimental result.
However, speed has a strong effect on tool life because most of the
input energy is converted into heat, which raises the temperature of
the chip, the work, and the tool, which effect the tool life.

The angle that the tool makes with respect to a vertical from the
workpiece is called the back rake angle a. A positive angle is shown in
the schematic. The chip is formed by shearing. The onset of shear
occurs at a low boundary deformed by angle f with respect to the
horizontal.

In metal cutting, we observe that the onset of shear (to form the
chip) is delayed by increased hardness (so f increases directly with
hardness).

If the work material has hard second-phase particles dispersed in it,

they can act as barriers to the shear front dislocations, which cannot
penetrate the particle. The dislocations create voids around the
particles. If there are enough particles of the right size and shape, the
chip will fracture through the shear zone, forming segmented chips.
Free-machining steels, which have small percentages of hard secondphase particles added to them, use this metallurgical phenomenon to
break up the chips for easier chip handling.

MERCHANT MODEL

The shear angle can be measured statically by instantaneously

interrupting the cut through the use of quick-stop devices. These
devices disengage the cutting tool from the workpiece while cutting is
in progress, leaving the chip attached to the workpiece. Optical and
scanning electron microscopy is then used to observe the direction of
shear.

It is assumed that the resultant force

R acting on the back of the chip is
equal and opposite to
the resultant force R acting on the
shear plane.
The resultant R is composed of
the friction force F and the
normal force N acting on the
toolchip interface contact area.
The
resultant
force
R
is
composed of a shear force Fs and
Since
neither
of these
two setson
of forces
normal
force
Fn acting
the
can
usually
bearea
measured,
a third set is
shear
plane
As
needed, which can be measured using
a dynamometer (force transducer)
mounted either in the workholder or the
tool holder.

The only symbol in this

figure as yet undefined is
b, which is the angle
between the normal force
N and the resultant R. It is
called friction angle b and
is used to describe the
friction coefficient
m
on
the
toolchip
interface area, which is
defined as F/N so that

Unit power is sensitive to material properties (e.g.,

hardness), rake angle, depth of cut, and feed, whereas ts is
sensitive to material properties only.

CHATTER

LOBE DIAGRAM

The amplitude of chatter vibration may be more safely limited by

temporary reduction of the feed per tooth until a preferred speed
and stable depth of cut have been established.

SHAPING PROCESS