Biology

Sylvia S. Mader
Michael Windelspecht

Chapter 31
Animal Organization
and Homeostasis
Lecture Outline
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 Outline
31.1 Types of Tissue
31.2 Organs, Organ Systems, and Body Cavities
31.3 The Integumentary System
31.4 Homeostasis

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 The Importance of Homeostasis for
Astronauts
The fact that astronauts need special suits to survive
in space reminds us that the internal environment of
our bodily functions must stay within normal limits.
Example: Enzymes function best at around 37 C
This concept is known as homeostasis, a dynamic
equilibrium of the internal environment.
An astronaut depends on artificial systems in addition
to natural systems to maintain homeostasis.

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 31.1 Types of Tissue
Tissues are:
Collections of specialized cells of the same or
a similar type that perform a common function
in the body
The four tissue types are:
Epithelial
Connective
Muscular
Nervous
 Types of Tissue
Epithelial Tissue (epithelium)
Forms a continuous layer over body surfaces
Lines body cavities
Forms glands
Epithelial cells may be connected to one another by
Tight junctions
Adhesion junctions
Gap junctions
Functions include
Protection
Secretion
Absorption
Excretion
Filtration

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 Types of Tissue
Simple Epithelia A single layer of cells
Classified according to cell type
Squamous epithelium flattened cells
Cuboidal epithelium cube-shaped cells
Columnar epithelium cells resembling columns
Stratified Epithelia Layers of cells
Glandular Epithelia Secretes a product
A gland can be a single epithelial cell or can contain
many cells.
Exocrine glands Secrete products into ducts or cavities
Endocrine glands Secrete products internally so they
are transported into the bloodstream
Types of Epithelial Tissues in the
Vertebrates

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Types of Epithelial Tissues in the
Vertebrates

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 Types of Tissue
Connective tissue functions:
Establishing a structural framework
Transporting fluids and dissolved materials
Protecting delicate organs
Supporting, surrounding, and interconnecting
tissues
Storing energy reserves
Defending the body from microorganisms

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10
 Types of Tissue
Connective tissue:
Diverse in structure and function but all types have
Specialized cells
Ground substance Noncellular material
Protein fibers
Collagen fibers contain collagen providing strength and flexibility
Reticular fibers contain thin, highly branched collagen fibers
Elastic fibers contain elastin, not as strong but more elastic than collagen
Ground substance plus fibers are the connective tissue
matrix.
Three categories of connective tissue are:
Fibrous
Supportive
Fluid

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Types of Connective Tissue in
Vertebrates

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Types of Connective Tissue in
Vertebrates

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 Types of Tissue
Fibrous Connective Tissue
Consists of:
Fibroblast cells
A jellylike matrix containing collagen and elastic fibers

Loose fibrous connective tissue

Allows organs to expand
Supports epithelium and many internal organs
Forms protective covering over internal organs

Adipose tissue
Stores energy
Insulates the body and provides padding
Mostly white, but brown in newborns due to increased numbers of mitochondria

Dense fibrous connective tissue

Strong connective tissue
Tendons connect muscle to bone
Ligaments connect bones to other bones at joints

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 Diagram of Fibrous
Connective Tissue
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Stem cell: divides to

produce other types
Adipose cell:
of cells
stores fat

Collagen fiber:
unbranched, strong
but flexible

Ground
Fibroblast: divides to
substance: fills
produce other types
spaces between
of cells
cells and fibers

Reticular fiber:
Elastic fiber: branched, thin, and
branched and forms network
stretchable

White blood cell:

engulfs pathogens
or produces antibodies
Blood vessel
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 Types of Tissue
Supportive Connective Tissue
Cartilage
Classified according to type of collagen and elastic fibers found
in the matrix (hyaline cartilage, elastic cartilage, fibrocartilage)
Cartilage cells lie in small chambers (lacuna) in the matrix.
Cartilage lacks a direct blood supply and heals very slowly.
Bone
Matrix is inorganic salts deposited around protein fibers
Bone cells are located in lacunae.
Lacunae arranged in concentric circles within osteons around
tiny tubes (central canals)

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 Types of Cartilage
Hyaline
Consists of very fine collagen fibers
Matrix is translucent
Found in nose and ends of long bones and ribs
Elastic
More elastic fibers than hyaline
More flexible
Found in framework of outer ear
Fibrocartilage
Matrix contains strong collagen fibers
Found in structures that withstand tension and pressure
Found in pads between vertebrae in backbone

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 Bone
Most rigid connective tissue
Consists of hard matrix of inorganic salts
Mostly calcium
Provides rigidity
Deposited around protein fibers
Especially collagen
Provides elasticity and strength
Compact bone
Makes up shaft of long bone
Consists of cylindrical units called osteons
Blood vessels in central canal carry nutrients
Spongy bone
Makes up ends of long bone
Contains bony bars and plates separated by air spaces
Site of red bone marrow, which produces blood cells

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 Types of Tissue
Fluid Connective Tissues
Blood
A connective tissue in which cells are embedded in a liquid matrix (plasma)
Red blood cells oxygen transport
Small disk-like cells without nuclei
White blood cells immune response
Larger than red blood cells and have a nucleus
Platelets involved in the clotting process
Fragments of larger cells present only in bone marrow
Functions
Transports nutrients and oxygen to cells
Removes carbon dioxide and other wastes
Helps distribute heat and plays a role in fluid, ion, and pH balance
Lymph
A fluid connective tissue located in lymphatic vessels
Lymphatic capillaries called lacteals absorb fat molecules from the small intestine.

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 Blood, a Liquid
Tissue
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plasma

white blood cells

(leukocytes)

red blood cells

(erythrocytes)

white blood cell

a. Blood sample
after centrifugation

platelets

red blood cell

plasma

b. Blood smear

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 Types of Tissue
Muscular (Contractile) Tissue
Contractile cells containing actin and myosin filaments
Cells are called muscle fibers.
Three types of muscle tissue:
Skeletal Muscle
Voluntary Long, striated fibers, multinucleated
Smooth (Visceral) Muscle
Involuntary No striations
Cardiac Muscle
Striated, but mostly involuntary
Cells are bound to each other by intercalated disks.
Have one single, centrally placed nucleus

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Muscular Tissue

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 Types of Tissue
Nervous system (functions):
Sensory input
Sensory receptors detect changes.
Transmit information to the spinal cord and brain
Data integration
Spinal cord and brain integrate data.
Decision is made regarding appropriate response
Motor output
Response is transmitted to effector (gland or muscle)
Effector initiates the actual response
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 Types of Tissue
Nervous Tissue
Conducts electrical impulses
Conveys information from one area to another
Nervous tissue includes:
Neurons
Transmit information
Consist of dendrites, a cell body, and an axon
An axon and its myelin sheath, if it has one, is called a fiber.
Outside the brain and spinal cord, fibers bound by
connective tissue form nerves.

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 Types of Tissue
Nervous Tissue
Neuroglia
Support and nourish neurons
Neuroglia in brain include
Microglia
Astrocytes
Glial cell-derived growth factor is being studied as a
possible Parkinson disease treatment.
Oligodentrocytes

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 Neurons and Neuroglia
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dendrite

Neuron
nucleus

cell body

axon
Microglia
Astrocyte

Oligodendrocyte

myelin sheath
axon

b. Micrograph of a neuron 200

Capillary
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a. Neuron and neuroglia b: Ed Reschke
 Regenerative Medicine
Nature of Science Reading
Many species of salamander retain the ability to
regenerate lost limbs.
Researchers used a gene encoding jellyfish green
fluorescent protein (GFP) to track cells rebuilding the
severed limb.
The regenerated limbs in non-transgenic salamanders
were not pluripotent and gave rise only to a limited set of
tissues.
Previous research had suggested that cells in the
limb become reprogrammed.
This research cast doubt on this theory.

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Creating a New Type of
Salamander for Limb
Regeneration
29
31.2 Organs, Organ Systems,
and Body Cavities
Organ
Composed of two or more tissue types
working together for a particular function
Organ System
Composed of various organs that cooperate
to carry out a general process
Example: digestion of food

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 Organs, Organ Systems, and
Body Cavities
Body Cavities
Dorsal cavity (toward the back)
It contains the cranial cavity and the vertebral canal.
The brain is in the cranial cavity.
The spinal cord is in the vertebral canal.
Ventral cavity (toward the front) is divided into
The thoracic cavity (includes heart and lungs),
The abdominal cavity (most other internal organs), and
The pelvic cavity (urinary bladder, female reproductive organs,
certain male reproductive organs)
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Mammalian Body Cavities
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Cranial
cavity:
contains brain

Dorsal
cavity
Vertebral
cavity:
contains
Thoracic spinal cord
cavity:
contains heart,
lungs, and
diaphragm
esophagus

Abdominal
cavity:
Ventral contains stomach,
cavity liver , spleen,
pancreas,
and intestines

Pelvic
cavity:
contains certain
reproductive
organs 32
a.
 Mammalian Body Cavities
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Thoracic cavity:
contains esophagus,
heart, and lungs

Abdominal cavity:
contains digestive
and other organs

Pelvic cavity:
contains reproductive
and other organs

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b.
34
 31.3 The Integumentary
Functions of skin
System
Largest and most conspicuous organ system
Covers and protects underlying body regions
Regulates body temperature
Contains sensory receptors
Involved in exchange of gases with environment in small
aquatic animals
Manufactures precursors to vitamin D after UV exposure
Skin and its derivatives make up the integumentary
system.

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The Integumentary System
Regions of the Skin
Epidermis Outer, thinner region
Stratified squamous epithelium
New cells are pushed outward, become keratinized,
and are sloughed off.
Melanocytes produce melanin (pigment).
UV radiation can cause mutations in the DNA of
skin cells, leading to skin cancer.

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 The Integumentary System
Regions of the Skin (contd)
Dermis Deeper and thicker than epidermis
Fibrous connective tissue containing elastic and collagen
fibers contains:
Receptors
Nerve fibers
Blood vessels

Subcutaneous Layer Loose, connective tissue

located below dermis, also known as hypodermis

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 The Integumentary System
Accessory Structures of Human Skin
Nails
Grow from nail root and form protective covering of distal portion of fingers
and toes

Hair follicles
Begin in the dermis and continue through the epidermis
Contain oil glands (sebaceous glands) which secrete sebum
Lubricates the hair within the follicle as well as the skin

Sweat glands
Present in all regions of the skin
Begin in dermis and open either to a hair follicle or to the surface of the skin
Function to help maintain constant body temperature

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 Human Skin
Anatomy
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

hair shaft

sweat pore Epidermis

melanocytes

sensory receptor

capillaries
oil gland
arrector pili muscle Dermis

free nerve endings

hair follicle
hair root
sweat gland
artery Subcutaneous layer
vein

nerve

adipose tissue

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Skin Cancer

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41
 31.4 Homeostasis
The organ systems of the human body
contribute to homeostasis.
The ability of an organism to maintain a relatively
constant internal environment
Animals vary to the degree in which they can regulate
internal variables.

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 Examples of Homeostatic
Regulation
The organ systems of the human body contribute to
homeostasis.
The digestive system
Takes in and digests food
Provides nutrient molecules that replace used nutrients.
The respiratory system
Adds oxygen to the blood
Removes carbon dioxide
The liver and the kidneys
Store excess glucose as glycogen
Later, glycogen is broken down to replace the glucose used.
The hormone insulin regulates glycogen storage.
The kidneys
Under hormonal control as they excrete wastes and salts that can
affect the pH of the blood

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 Homeostasis
Homeostatic Control
Homeostasis is, to a degree, controlled by
hormones.
But is ultimately controlled by the nervous
system
Negative feedback is the primary homeostatic
mechanism that keeps a variable close to a set value.
The sensor detects change in environment.
Regulatory center initiates an action to bring the conditions
back to normal.
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Regulation of Room Temperature
Using Negative Feedback
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Control center

sends data to directs furnace

thermostat to turn off
68F set point

Sensor

70F
furnace off
too hot

negative feedback
stimulus
and return to
normal temperature

too h
ot
Homeostasis
to o c
old

negative feedback
and return to
normal temperature
stimulus

Sensor
furnace on
66F
too cold

Control center
directs furnace
to turn on sends data to
thermostat

68F set point 45

Regulation of Body Temperature by
Negative Feedback
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Control center

sends data to
directs response
control center 98.6F set point
to stimulus

Sensor
Effect

Blood vessels dilate;

sweat glands secrete.

negative feedback
stimulus and return to normal
temperature

abov
e nor
mal
Normal body temperature
below
norm
al

negative feedback stimulus

and return to normal

Effect

Sensor
Blood vessels constrict;
sweat glands are inactive.

Control center
directs response
to stimulus sends data to
control center

98.6F set point

 Homeostasis
Positive feedback is a mechanism that
brings about an ever greater change in the
same direction.
Childbirth process
Positive Feedback
Does not result in equilibrium
Does not occur as often as negative feedback

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Positive Feedback
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2. Signals cause pituitary gland to

release the hormone oxytocin.
As the level of oxytocin increases, pituitary gland
so do uterine contractions
until birth occurs.

uterus

1. Due to uterine contractions,

babys head presses on
cervix, and signals are
sent to brain.