Week2 Intro Knowledge Representation

Artificial Intelligence CS364
Knowledge Representation
Lectures on Artificial Intelligence CS364
Introduction to Knowledge Representation
13th September 2005

Dr Bogdan L. Vrusias
b.vrusias@surrey.ac.uk
Contents
Defining Knowledge Representation
Knowledge Representation Schemes
Semantic Networks
Taxonomy
Ontology
13th Bogdan L. Vrusias 2

'A representation is a set of conventions about how to
describe a class of things. A description makes use of the
conventions of a representation to describe some particular
thing.' (Winston 1992:16).
'Good representations make important objects and relations
explicit, expose natural constraints, and bring objects and
relations together' (ibid: 45)
The representation principle:

Once a problem is described using an appropriate representation,
the problem is almost solved.

Starting with an Example

The Farmer, The Fox, The Goose and The Grain:
The farmer must get a fox, a goose and a sack of grain across a
river, however his boat is small and he can only carry one thing at
a time. His problem is that if he leaves the fox with the goose the
goose will be eaten, and if he leaves the goose with the grain, the
grain will be eaten
A good representation makes it easier for us to solve the
problem:
1. Draw possible safe combinations in a diagram.
2. Arrange appropriate combinations in order.
3. Link appropriate arrangements to represent boat trips.
4. Problem is solved!

Grain Farmer
Goose
Grain
Fox Fox
Farmer
Goose
Farmer Fox Farmer Goose Farmer

Fox Grain Fox Goose
Goose Grain
Grain
Farmer Goose Farmer Fox Farmer
Goose Fox Grain Goose
Grain Fox
Grain
Fox Farmer
Fox
Goose
Farmer Grain
Goose
Grain

Knowledge Representation Schemes

A number of knowledge representation schemes (or formalisms) have
been used to represent the knowledge of humans in a systematic
manner. This knowledge is represented in a knowledge base such that
it can be retrieved for solving problems. Amongst the well-established
knowledge representation schemes are:
Production Rules
Semantic Networks
Frames
Conceptual Dependency Grammar
Conceptual Graphs
Ontology
Predicate and Modal Logic
Conceptual or Terminological Logics
XML / RDF

Semantic Networks
Ross Quillian (1966 and 1968) was among the early AI
workers to develop a computational model which
represented 'concepts' as hierarchical networks.
This model was amended with some additional

psychological assumptions to characterise the structure of
[human] semantic memory.

Semantic Networks
Collins and Quillian (1969) proposed that:
Concepts can be represented as hierarchies of inter-

connected concept nodes (e.g. animal, bird, canary)
Any concept has a number of associated attributes at a given level

(e.g. animal --> has skin; eats etc.)
Some concept nodes are superordinates of other nodes (e.g.

animal > bird) and some are subordinates (canary < bird)

Semantic Networks
For reasons of cognitive economy, subordinates inherit
all the attributes of their superordinate concepts.
Some instances of a concept are excepted from the

attributes that help [humans] to define the superordinates
(e.g. ostrich is excepted from flying)
Various [psychological] processes search these hierarchies

for information about the concepts represented.

Semantic Network Example
canary
can sing, is yellow
bird is-a
can fly, has wings,
has feathers ostrich
animal runs fast, cannot fly,
can breathe, can eat, is-a is tall
has skin is-a
salmon
fish lays eggs; swims upstream,
is-a can swim, has fins, has gills is pink, is edible
is-a

Semantic Network Example

From the above taxonomic organisation of knowledge about a number
of different animals, one can conclude, by 'inheriting properties
down the taxonomy', that canaries, ostriches and salmon all have skin
and can breathe.
But we as humans can also make exceptions to inherited properties in

that we can represent an not-flying bird in a (sub-) hierarchy of birds
by simply noting the exception, can't fly.
Collins and Quillian carried out a number of tests on human subjects

and found that the subjects recognise propositions lower down the
hierarchy (canary is a yellow bird) more readily than propositions
higher up the hierarchy (canary has skin).

Defining Inheritance
AI researchers have refined the notion of inheritance:
It is called a specialised inferencing technique 'for representing

properties of classes, exceptions to inherited properties, multiple
superclasses, and structured concepts with specific relations
among the structural elements' (Touretzky 1992:690).

Semantic Networks
A semantic network is a structure for representing knowledge as a
pattern of interconnected nodes and arcs. Nodes in the net represent
concepts of entities, attributes, events, values. Arcs in the network
represent relationships that hold between the concepts.
A semantic network is a graph theoretic data structure whose nodes

represent word senses and whose arcs express semantic relationships
between these word senses.
Quillian gave an account, perhaps first used by a computer scientist, of

the associate features of human memory that incorporated a spreading
activation model of computation.

Networks and 'Meaning' Representation

The biosystematic notions of taxonomies, where the
concept of superordinates and subordinates plays a major
role on the knowledge representation literature.
TAXONOMY OF LIFE: The taxonomic organisation of
species in a hierarchical structure:
Kingdom > Phylum (division in botany) > Class > Order > Family
> Genus > Species
Carolus Linneaus (c.18th century Swedish botanist)
devised the system of binomial nomenclature used for
naming species:
each species has a two-part Latin name, formed by appending a
specific epithet to the genus name.
The latter is capitalised and both parts italicised.

Modern Taxonomy Example

DOG SUGAR BREAD INTESTINAL POND ALGAE
MAPLE MOULD BACTERIUM
KINGDOM Animalia Plantae (plants) Fungi (fungi) Prokaryotae Protoctista (algae,
(animals) (bacteria) protozoa, slim
moulds)
PHYLUM Chordata Magnoliophyta Zygomycota Omnibacteria Chlorophyta
CLASS Mammalia Rosidae Zygomycetes Enterobacteria Euconjugatae
ORDER Carnivora Sapindales Macorales Eubacteriales Zygnematales
FAMILY Canidae Aceraceae Mucoraceae (E. coli does not Zygnemataceae
have a family
classification)
GENUS Canis Acer Rhizopus Escherichia Spirogyra
SPECIES C. familiaris A.saccharum R. stolonifer E. Coli S. crassa

Representation and Biosystematics

Work in knowledge representation has been influenced by
key notions in biosystematics.
However, there are crucial differences between what a

taxonomist does and a knowledge engineer does.
The key difference is that of the intended audience in the

two cases:
for the taxonomist the audience is intelligent and human
and for the knowledge engineer the primary 'audience' is a
computer system, or more accurately the representation program.

Ontology
Definition:
The science or study of being; that department of metaphysics

which relates to the being or essence of things, or to being in the
abstract. (OED online, http://www.oed.com/)

Ontology
AI experts, like Tom Gruber, suggest that:
'In the context of knowledge sharing, I use the term ontology to
mean a specification of a conceptualization. That is, an ontology is
a description (like a formal specification of a program) of the
concepts and relationships that can exist for an agent or a
community of agents. This definition is consistent with the usage
of ontology as set-of-concept-definitions, but more general. And it
is certainly a different sense of the word than its use in
philosophy.' (Cited from www-ksl.stanford.edu/kst/what-is-an-
ontology.html; site visited 12/09/05)

Ontology
Also Tom Gruber, suggest that:
'An ontology is an explicit specification of a conceptualization. The term
is borrowed from philosophy, where an Ontology is a systematic account
of Existence. For AI systems, what "exists" is that which can be
represented. When the knowledge of a domain is represented in a
declarative formalism, the set of objects that can be represented is called
the universe of discourse. This set of objects, and the describable
relationships among them, are reflected in the representational vocabulary
with which a knowledge-based program represents knowledge. Thus, in
the context of AI, we can describe the ontology of a program by defining
a set of representational terms. In such an ontology, definitions associate
the names of entities in the universe of discourse (e.g., classes, relations,
functions, or other objects) with human-readable text describing what the
names mean, and formal axioms that constrain the interpretation and well-
formed use of these terms. Formally, an ontology is the statement of a
logical theory.' (Cited from www-ksl.stanford.edu/kst/what-is-an-
ontology.html; site visited 12/09/05)

Ontology as a Specification Mechanism

A body of formally represented knowledge is based on a
conceptualization: the objects, concepts, and other entities
that are assumed to exist in some area of interest and the
relationships that hold among them (Genesereth &
Nilsson, 1987).
A conceptualization is an abstract, simplified view of the
world that we wish to represent for some purpose.
Every knowledge base, knowledge-based system, or
knowledge-level agent is committed to some
conceptualization, explicitly or implicitly.

Ontology

Closing
Questions???
Remarks???
Comments!!!
Evaluation!

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Artificial Intelligence CS364

Lectures on Artificial Intelligence CS364

Introduction to Knowledge Representation

13th September 2005

13th Bogdan L. Vrusias 2

The representation principle:

13th Bogdan L. Vrusias 3

Starting with an Example

13th Bogdan L. Vrusias 4

Farmer Fox Farmer Goose Farmer

13th Bogdan L. Vrusias 5

Knowledge Representation Schemes

13th Bogdan L. Vrusias 6

This model was amended with some additional

13th Bogdan L. Vrusias 7

Concepts can be represented as hierarchies of inter-

Any concept has a number of associated attributes at a given level

Some concept nodes are superordinates of other nodes (e.g.

13th Bogdan L. Vrusias 8

Some instances of a concept are excepted from the

Various [psychological] processes search these hierarchies

13th Bogdan L. Vrusias 9

Semantic Network Example

13th Bogdan L. Vrusias 10

Semantic Network Example

But we as humans can also make exceptions to inherited properties in

Collins and Quillian carried out a number of tests on human subjects

13th Bogdan L. Vrusias 11

It is called a specialised inferencing technique 'for representing

13th Bogdan L. Vrusias 12

A semantic network is a graph theoretic data structure whose nodes

Quillian gave an account, perhaps first used by a computer scientist, of

13th Bogdan L. Vrusias 13

Networks and 'Meaning' Representation

13th Bogdan L. Vrusias 14

Modern Taxonomy Example

13th Bogdan L. Vrusias 15

Representation and Biosystematics

However, there are crucial differences between what a

The key difference is that of the intended audience in the

13th Bogdan L. Vrusias 16

The science or study of being; that department of metaphysics

13th Bogdan L. Vrusias 17

13th Bogdan L. Vrusias 18

13th Bogdan L. Vrusias 19

Ontology as a Specification Mechanism

13th Bogdan L. Vrusias 20

13th Bogdan L. Vrusias 21

13th Bogdan L. Vrusias 22

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