Unit III

Loop antenna
Horn Antennas
Helical Antennas
The Log-Periodic Antenna
Micro strip Antennas
Slot Antennas
 Loop Antenna
The loop antenna is a radiating coil of any cross-
section of one or more turns carrying radio
frequency current.
It may be of any shape rectangular, square, circular,
triangular, hexagonal etc. on either air or ferrite core.
A loop of more than one turn is called as frame.
 The Loop Antenna. General Case

Kraus: Fig. 7-4 Kraus: Fig. 7-5. Cross section in xz plane

Expressions for far fields for all loops (of any radius a)
Electric field:
[ I ]a
E J1 ( a sin )
2r

60a[ I ]
or E J1 ( a sin )
r

Magnetic field:
a[ I ]
H J1 ( a sin )
2r
Far-field patterns of circular loop antennas with
uniform current

Kraus: Fig. 7-6

Kraus: Fig. 7-7. Far-field patterns of loop antennas
Small loop as a special case:

For small arguments of first-order Bessel function,

x
J1 ( x)
2
If perimeter of loop is /3 or less (C < 1/3), far fields are

60a[ I ] 60a[ I ]a sin 120 2 [ I ] sin A

E J1 ( a sin )
r 2r r 2
a[ I ] a[ I ]a sin [ I ] sin A
H J1 ( a sin )
2r 4r r 2

using = 2/ and A = a2
Radiation resistance
For small loop (C 1/3) of single-turn
2
A
Rr 31,171 2 197C4

2
A
or Rr 31,200 2

For a small loop having n turns,

2
A
Rr 31,200 n 2

 For large loop (C 5)
a
Rr 60 C 592C 3720
2

Directivity
2C [ J12 (C sin )]max
D 2 C
0
J 2 ( y )dy

3 2 3
For small loop (C 1/3), D sin
2 2

For large loop (C 2), D 0.68C

 Applications of loop antennas

Loop antennas are used

in radio receivers for AM reception.

in direction finding of aircrafts & other space
vehicles.
in UHF transmitters.
Practical loop antennas
 Horn antenna
A horn antenna is a flared-out waveguide.
The function of horn is to produce a uniform phase
front with a larger aperture than that of waveguide &
so greater directivity.
Horn antennas can be rectangular horns and circular
horns.
 Rectangular horns Circular horns

Kraus: Fig. 7-40. Types of rectangular & circular horn antennas

 Pyramidal horn antenna
From fig. 7-41 (b)

L
cos
2 L
a/2 a
sin
2 ( L ) 2( L )
a/2 a
tan
2 L 2L
so,
a L
2 tan1
2 cos 1

2L L

Kraus: Fig. 7-41

From geometry, considering right-angled triangle
2
a
(L ) L
2 2

2
2
a
or L 2 L L
2 2 2

4
As is small ( << L), 2 can be neglected. Solving,
a2
2 L
4
a2
L
8
Optimum horn dimensions:

L
Optimum , 0 L
cos( / 2)

0 cos( / 2)
Optimum length, L
1 cos( / 2)
The Rectangular Horn antenna

Kraus: Fig. 7-42

Kraus: Fig. 7-43. E & H-plane field patterns
Directivity
4Ae 4ap Ap
We have, D
2
2

For rectangular horn, Ap = aE aH

For conical horn, Ap = r2, where r is aperture radius

Taking , ap = 0.6,
7.5 Ap 7.5 Ap
D or D 10 log 2 dBi
2
For a pyramidal (rectangular) horn, as Ap = aE aH,
7.5aE aH 7.5aE aH
D 10 log 10 log
.
2
 or D 10 log 7.5aE aH dBi
where,
aE = E-plane aperture in
aH = H-plane aperture in

Half power beamwidths (for optimum rectangular horns):

56 56
HPBW (E plane )
aE aE

67 67
HPBW (H plane )
aH aH
Fig. Horn antenna radiation pattern
 Applications of horn antenna

Used at microwave frequencies (above 300 MHz).

Pyramidal, Sectoral, Conical & Biconical horns are
used as feeders (called feed horns) for larger antenna
structures such as parabolic reflectors and lenses.
As standard calibration antennas to measure the gain
of other antennas.
As directive antennas for devices such as radar guns,
automatic door openers etc.
 Practical horn antennas

Fig. Horn feeding a parabolic reflector

Fig. Hogg Horn
Fig. Radar gun Fig. Horn in Radar gun
 Advantages of horn antenna

Moderate directivity. Gain ranges up to 25 dBi, with

10 - 20 dBi being typical.
As they have no resonant elements, they can operate
over a wide range of frequencies, so have a broad
bandwidth.
Low VSWR
 Helical antenna
It consists of a helix of thick copper wire or tubing
wound in the shape of a screw thread and used in
conjunction with a flat metal plate called a ground
plane.
It provides circularly polarized waves.
Helical geometry
D = diameter of helix
C = circumference of helix = D
S = spacing between turns
L = Length of 1 turn
n or N = number of turns
A = axial length = nS Kraus: Fig. 8-8

d = diameter of helix conductor

= pitch angle

From fig. 8-9,

L S 2 C 2 S 2 (D) 2
Kraus: Fig. 8-9. Relation between C, S & L
Also, pitch angle can be found as follows.
S S
tan
C D
S S
or tan
1
arctan
D D
 The Helix Modes
1. Transmission (T) mode: For an infinite helix.
Modes T0, T1, T2, T3 etc.

2. Radiation (R) mode: It depicts far field pattern of a

finite helical antenna.
(i) Normal or omni mode: It is also called
perpendicular mode of radiation. It is denoted by
R0.
In this, the radiation beam is normal to the
direction of helix axis.
This mode of radiation is obtained if dimensions of
helix are small compared with wavelength i.e.
nL <<
 Fig. Normal mode radiation pattern

(ii) Axial or beam mode: It is also called end-

fire mode of radiation. It is denoted by R1.
In this, radiation beam is parallel to the
helix axis.
This mode of radiation is obtained if the
helix circumference C is of the order of 1
(C = 1).
The radiation in this mode is circularly
polarized.
Parameters for monofilar axial-mode helical
antenna:
Far field pattern
90 sin( n / 2)
E sin cos
n sin( / 2)

1
where 360 S (1 cos )

2n

Terminal impedance (resistive)

R 140C (axial feed)
 52
HPBW
C nS

115
BWFN
C nS

Directivity (or Gain) D 12C nS

2

(2n 1)
Axial Ratio AR
2n

All above formulae apply for

0.8 < C < 1.15, 12 < < 14 and n > 3
Axial mode radiation pattern
 Practical helical antennas

Fig. Helical antenna used in Normal or omni mode

Fig. Arrays of helical antennas
Fig. Quadrifilar helical antenna
 The Log-Periodic antenna
It is a frequency independent antenna.
A frequency independent antenna is one that is
physically fixed in size and operates on an
instantaneous basis over a wide bandwidth with
relatively constant impedance, pattern, polarization,
gain etc.
As per V. H. Rumseys principle, an antenna will be
frequency independent if the antenna shape is
specified only in terms of angles.
Log-Periodic Dipole Array (LPDA)

Kraus: Fig. 11-17

The dipole lengths l and spacing R (or s) are related as

R1 R2 R3 Rn l1 l2 l3 ln
..... .....
R2 R3 R4 Rn 1 l2 l3 l4 ln 1

: Scale factor or design ratio. < 1

Rn ln
So,
Rn 1 ln 1

Alternatively,
ln 1 sn 1 1
k k: Scale factor. k > 1
ln sn
Analysis and working
Analysis can be done by considering 3 regions of
antenna, at a wavelength near middle of operating
range.

1. Inactive (transmission line) region (l < /2)

2. Active (radiating) region (l /2)
3. Inactive (stop) region (l > /2)

1. Inactive (transmission line) region (l < /2):

Antenna elements in this region are less than
resonant length i.e. /2 long & they present a large
capacitive reactance to the line.
 Currents in the elements are small and lead the
base voltage supplied by transmission line by 90
approx. The radiation towards left is small.

2. Active (radiating) region (l /2):

In this region, elements are of resonant length
approx. i.e. /2 long so impedance offered by
dipoles of this region is resistive in nature.
So, element currents are large & in-phase with base
voltage. Hence, there is strong radiation towards
left in backward direction from this region.
3. Inactive (stop) region (l > /2):
The element lengths are longer than the resonant
length i.e. /2 and so they present inductive
reactance to the line. Due to this, currents in the
elements are small & lag the base voltage.
Small currents in elements mean that the antenna
is effectively truncated at the right of active region.
Any small fields from these elements tend to cancel
in forward & backward direction so radiation from
this region is small.
Thus, when wavelength is increased, radiation region
moves to the right & when wavelength is decreased,
radiation region moves to the left with maximum
radiation towards the apex or feed point of array.
 Design of LPDA

In general, the dipole lengths (l), spacing R (or s),

diameters (d) and gap spacing at dipole centers (a) are
related as,
ln 1 sn 1 Rn 1 d n 1 an 1 1
k n = 1, 2, 3 ..
ln sn Rn dn an
From the geometry,

tan
ln 1 ln / 2 ln 1 ln

s 2s
ln 1
As, k
ln

ln 1
so, ln Kraus: Fig. 11-18
k
Using this,
tan
ln 1 ln 1 / k
tan
1 1 / k ln 1
or
2s 2s
Taking ln+1 = /2, when active, we have

tan
1 1 / k ( / 2) 1 1 / k

2s 4s
1 1 / k 1 1 / k 1
or, tan
4s / 4 s 4 s

: apex angle
k: scale factor
s: spacing in wavelengths shortward of /2 element
s 1
Also, spacing factor so, tan
4

1 1
Hence, we have tan
1
and
4 4 tan
 Applications of Log-Periodic antenna

In television and FM reception

EMC and EMI testing
Radio link testing
Surveillance and all round monitoring
Practical log-periodic antenna
 Advantages

Wide Band, High Gain, Low VSWR

Small Size, Light Weight, Easy Assembly
Low return loss
Constant gain with frequency
 Slot Antenna

Poor radiator Good, efficient radiator

 Feeding methods of slot antennas

Feeding by coaxial transmission line is very convenient.

Center feed Off-center feed

Ways of off-center feeding
Boxed-in slot antenna
Boxed-in slot antenna at long wavelength

Flush radiator application

Waveguide-fed slot

/2 < L < 1

For better impedance match over wide frequency band,

L/w < 3
Complementary of slot antenna

Slot antenna /2 dipole

Radiation field patterns of slot &
dipole antenna

Kraus: Fig. 7-27

Radiation pattern of slot antenna

Kraus: Fig. 7-29

 Microstrip Antennas
They are also called printed antennas or
microstrip patch antennas
They are used wherever size, weight, cost,
performance are constraints.
They are popular for low profile applications
at frequencies above 100 MHz.
Linear & circular polarizations can be
achieved.
 Structure of microstrip antenna
It consists of a metal patch on a dielectric substrate
with ground plane on the other side.

Kraus: Fig. 14-4

 Radiating patch and feed lines are photo etched on
the dielectric substrate with a continuous metal layer
bonded on opposite side of substrate to form the
ground plane
Shape of radiating metal patch may be square,
rectangular, circular, triangular or elliptical.
E-field distribution

Kraus: Fig. 14-3

Radiation pattern
(for linearly
polarized MSA)

Kraus: Fig. 14-5

 Advantages
Small size, light weight and less volume
Can be easily molded to any desired shape and so
can be attached to any surface
Their fabrication processes are simple, production is
easy and fabrication cost is low, so can be
manufactured in large quantities.
They support linear as well as circular polarization
They are capable of dual & triple frequency
operations
Easy to form large arrays.
 Disadvantages (Limitations)
Low bandwidth
Low efficiency
Low gain
Low power-handling capacity
They suffer from effects of radiation from
feeds and junctions.
Surface waves are excited in the substrate
which is a loss.
Practical Microstrip (Patch) antennas