Computers New

By:
John Ryan D. Regalario, ECE

Anelectronic device
designed to accept data,
perform prescribed
computational and logical
operations at high speed
and output the result of
this operation.
2015 All Rights Reserved. TOP ECE Review Center 9/1/2017 2
Abacus Napiers Bones
China, 12th By John Napier
century
Has 11 rods
with numbers
to obtain
products and
quotients of
large numbers.
2015 All Rights Reserved. TOP ECE Review Center 9/1/2017
4
Oughtreds
Slide Rule
By William
Ougthred,
17th century
Has two
rulers side-
by-side
Pascals
Calculator
By Blaise
Pascal, France,
1645
Has series of
wheels capable
of addition and
subtraction

Leibnizs
Calculator
By Gottfried
Leibniz, 1694
Can add,
subtract,
multiply, divide
and extract
square roots

Babbages Analytical Engine
By Charles Babbage, 19th century, Father of
modern computer
Babbage developed the Difference Engine in 1822

(abandoned)
Babbage developed the Analytical Engine
Has two cards: Operation card (for operations)

and Variable card (for actual data)
Lady Ada Byron, Countess of Lovelace, is The

first programmer

Holleriths Punched-
Card Machine
By Herman Hollerith,
1880s
Used 3in x 5in punch

cards which holds the
data
His company is the

forerunner of the IBM
corporation

Z1 Computer
ABC Computer
MARK-1
ENIAC
EDVAC
EDSAC
UNIVAC

Z1 Computer
By Konrad Zuse, 1936, Henschel Aircraft
Company in Berlin, Germany.
First Binary Computer
Z2 Computer
1939, First fully-functioning Electro-
Mechanical Computer
Z3 Computer
1941, First fully programmable Digital
Computer

Atanasoff-Berry Computer (ABC)
First Electronic Digital Computer
By John Atanasoff and Clifford Berry,

1939-1942, Iowa State University

Mark-1
Automatic Sequence Controlled

Calculator
By Howard Aiken, Harvard University,

1944
The First Automatic General Purpose

Computer
ENIAC
Electronic Numerical Integrator and

Computer
The First true general-purpose

Electronic Computer
By Presper Eckert Jr, and John Mauchly,

1946, University of Pennsylvania
Not a stored-program computer

EDVAC
Electronic Discrete Variable

Automatic Computer
First Stored Program Computer
By Mauchly and Eckert, 1952

EDSAC
Electronic Delay Storage Automatic

Calculator
Cambridge University, England, May

1949
Uses symbolic programming instead

machine codes
UNIVAC
Universal Automatic Computer
Based on EDVAC, 1948
UNIVAC I
This machine was usually regarded as the
most successful electronic data processor
of its day

Number Radix or
System Base
Decimal 10
Binary 2
Octal 8
Hexadecimal 16
Isa system where the value of
a number is defined not only by
the symbol but by the symbols
position

ABCDE.vwxyz r
r4 r3 r2 r1 r0 r-1 r-2 r-3 r-4 r-5

MSD
The MSD in a number is the digit that
has the greatest effect on that
number.
LSD
The LSD in a number is the digit that
has the least effect on that number.

Base 10 to Base N
Base N to Base 10
Base N to Base M
SpecialConversion (Binary,
Hexadecimal, Octal)

Dividethe whole number by the
radix (Base N)
Fromthe quotient, multiply the

fractional part by the radix
(Base N). The resulting number
is the 1st number.

Convert 1210 to
Hexadecimal, Binary and
Octal.
In Hexadecimal, C16.
In Binary, 11002.
In Octal, 148.
Convert1210 to a number
system using 5 symbols.
In base 5, 225.

Convert 0.62510 to
binary.
In binary, 0.1012.

Place Value!

Convert 3F16 to decimal.
In Decimal, 6310.

Convert326 to Decimal
number system.
In decimal, 2010.

Convert101.01012 to
Decimal number system.
In decimal, 5.312510.

Base N
Base 10
Base M

Group by 3 bits!

Convert11011010102 to
Octal number system.
In Octal, 15528.

Convert110.010100011102
to octal.
In Octal, 6.24348.

Represent each octal digit into
3 bits!

Convert 124.3448 to
binary.
Inbinary,
1010100.01110012.

Group by 4 bits!

Convert to 101.111010012
to hexadecimal.
5.E916

Represent each octal digit into
4 bits!

Convert 5A.BB316 to
binary.
1011010.1011101100112

Octal Hex
Binary Binary
Hex Octal

Practice makes perfect.

What is a number?
A. A quantity of objects
B. A counting system based
on symbols
C. The decimal system
D. A symbol representing a
unit or a quantity

Whatterm describes a
single object in a
modern number system?
A. Unit
B. Base
C. Digit
D. Number

The difference of 01112
subtracted from 10012 is
___.
A. 10 base 10
B. 2 base 10
C. 5 base 8
D. A base 16

1000101110110010110102
is equal to ___.
A. 4723132 base8
B. 4273132 base8
C. 11765A base8
D. Math ERROR

Twoscomplement of
00112 is ___.
A. 11002
B. 11012
C. 01002
D. 01012

6 base8 added to 8 base
16
A. 14 base 8
B. 1110 base 2
C. 1110 base 10
D. 14 base 2

Anumber system uses the
symbols 0 through 4.
What is its base?
A. 6
B. 5
C. 3
D. 4

By George Boole (1854)
Analgebraic structure in which

variables can only have two
possible values: 1 or 0
Operators: Complement, OR and

AND

Simplifythe expression
F=ABD+CD+ACD+ABC+ABCD
A. CD+AD
B. BC+AB
C. AC+AB
D. ABD+ABC+CD

Showsall the possible input
combinations and its
corresponding output.
Thenumber of input combination

should be 2n.
Where n is the number of inputs.

x y z F
0 0 0 Output
0 0 1 Output
0 1 0 Output
0 1 1 Output
1 0 0 Output
1 0 1 Output
1 1 0 Output
1 1 1 Output

Graphical-
Tabular method
of simplifying
logical
expressions.
Canalso be
described as a
special
arrangement of
a truth table.

Groupsmay be horizontal or
vertical, but not diagonal.

Groupsmust contain 1, 2, 4, 8,
or in general 2n cells.

Eachgroup should be as large
as possible.

Eachcell containing a one must
be in at least one grop.

Groups may overlap.

Groups may wrap around the
table.

Thereshould be as few groups
as possible.

No diagonals.
Only power of 2 number of cells in each
group.
Groups should be as large as possible.
Every one must be in at least one group.
Overlapping allowed.
Wrap around allowed.
Fewest number of groups possible.

Simplifythe expression
F=ABD+CD+ACD+ABC+ABC
F = ABD + CD + ABC

Simplifythe function
f=wxyz+wxyz+wxyz+
wxyz
f=xz

Smallestbuilding block of
digital circuitry.
A circuit that follows Boolean

Logic.

Inverter (NOT)
OR
AND
NOR
NAND
XOR
XNOR

TheAND gate is an electronic
circuit that gives
a high output (1) only
if all its inputs are high.

TheOR gate is an electronic
circuit that gives a high
output (1) if one or more of
its inputs are high.

The NOT gate is an electronic
circuit that produces an
inverted version of the input
at its output.
It is also known as inverter.

This is a NOT-AND gate which is
equal to an AND gate followed
by a NOT gate.
The outputs of all NAND gates
are high if any of the inputs
are low.

This is a NOT-OR gate which is
equal to an OR gate followed by
a NOT gate.
The outputs of all NOR gates
are low if any of the inputs
are high.

The'Exclusive-OR' gate is a
circuit which will give a high
output if either, but not both,
of its two inputs are high.

The'Exclusive-NOR' gate
circuit does the opposite to
the EOR gate. It will give a
low output if either, but not
both, of its two inputs are
high.

Any other logic gate can be
represented by any of the
universal gates only.
Implementations:
NOR
Used if the function is a product-of-sum
(POS) expression.
NAND
Used if the function is a sum-of-product
(SOP) expression.


Asolid-state device
which only gives a 1
output if all its inputs
are also 1 is called
A. an AND gate
B. a NAND gate
C. a NOR gate
D. an OR gate
Whatis the logic circuit
having two or more inputs and
have a high output if any or
all inputs are high; with low
input only when all inputs
are low?
A. AND gate
B. OR gate
C. NOR gate
D. NAND gate

A solid-state logical
device which only gives a
1 output if all inputs
are 0 is called _______
gate.
A. NOT
B. NOR
C. NAND
D. OR
Logicis defined as the science
of reasoning.

Logicpolarity is the type of
voltage used to represent the
logic 1 of the statement.
Two types of Logic Polarity:

Positive Logic
Negative Logic

Ifthe signal that activates
the circuit (state 1) has a
voltage level more positive
than the zero state, it is
considered as Positive Logic.

Ifthe signal that activates
the circuit (state 1) has a
voltage level more negative
than the zero state, it
considered as Negative Logic.

Combinational Logic
Output is dependent on present input
only.
Has logic gates only.
Sequential Logic
Output is dependent on present input
and present output.
Has logic gates and memory elements.

Adder
Quarter
Half
Full
Encoders & Decoders
Multiplexers & Demultiplexers

A circuit that can add two
binary digits but will not
produce a carry.

Designedto
combine two binary
digits and produce
a carry

Thefull adder
becomes necessary
when a carry
input must be
added to the two
binary digits to
obtain the
correct sum.

A combinational circuit that
converts binary information
from n input lines to a maximum
of 2^n unique output lines.
Size: (n x 2^n)
Example: 2x4, 3x8, 4x16, etc

Performs the inverse of a
decoder.
Theoutput is the binary

equivalent of the input.
Size: (2^n x n)
Example: 4x2, 8x3, 16x4, etc.

Hasone input
line and 2^n
output lines.
Example:1x2,
1x4, 1x8, etc.
Uses the select
lines to
control where
to output the
data.
Selects binary information from one
of many input lines and direct it to
a single output line.
Size: 2^n x 1
Example: 2x1, 4x1, 8x1, etc.
Select lines are used to select from

which input the data be coming from
to deliver to the output.
What level is used to
represent logic-1 in a
negative logic circuit?
A. Negative Transition level
B. Low level
C. Positive Transition level
D. High level
Iflogic 1 = + 5 vdc and
logic 0 = + 10 vdc, what
logic polarity is being
used?
A. Negative
B. Positive
C. High
D. Low
A circuit made up of
combinations of logic
gates, with no feedback
from outputs to input.
A. sequential logic circuit
B. combinational logic circuit
C. clocked circuits
D. asynchronous logic circuit
Howmany logic gates are
in an MSI chip?
A. less than 12 gates
B. between 12 to 99 gates
C. anywhere from 100 to
9999 gates
D. 10,000 or more
Howmany outputs does a
full adder have?
A. 1
B. 2
C. 4
D. 8
Synchronous sequential circuit
Clock-controlled
Asynchronous sequential circuit

Non-clocked
Usedto store data temporarily,
to multiply or divide, to count
operations, to receive and
transfer information.
Smallest memory element.
Common types:
RS, T, D, JK
Usedto temporarily hold or
store information until it is
needed
A bistable device that changes
state on command from a common
input terminal.
Aninverter indicates a FF will

toggle on a HIGH-to-LOW
transition of the input pulse.
Usedto store data at a
predetermined time and hold it
until it is needed.
Thiscircuit is sometimes
called a Delay FF
Themost widely used FF because
of its versatility.
Whenproperly used it may

perform the function of an R-S,
T, or D FF.
Clockis a timing signal
generated by the equipment to
control the operations.
Thesimplest clock is a astable

or free-running multivibrator.
Anothertype of clock is a
triggered or one-shot
multivibrator.
A counter is simply a device
that counts.
Thetotal number of counts or

stable states a counter can
indicate is called a MODULUS.
Theterm MODULO is used to

describe the count capability
of counters.
Ripple Counters
Synchronous Counters
Decade Counters
Ring Counters
Ripplecounters are so named
because the count is like a
chain reaction that ripples to
the counter because of the time
involved.
A Ripple Counter is also called

ASYNHRONOUS COUNTER.
Usedwhen high-frequency
operations require that all the
FFs of trigger be triggered at
the same time to prevent errors.
SynchronousCounters is similar
to ripple counters except that:
Clock is connected to each FF,
Additional gates are added to ensure
that FF toggle in the proper sequence.
DecadeCounters are binary
counters that are designed to
count 1010 or 10102
A Ring Counter is defined as a
loop of bistable devices
interconnected in such a manner
that only one of the devices
may be in a specified state at
one time.
A register is a temporary
storage device.
Theyare used to store data,

memory addresses, and operation
codes.
A register in which the
contents may be shifted one or
more places to the left or
right.
Usedfor serial-to-parallel
conversion and for scaling
binary numbers
Ina clocked sequential
logic circuit, what
memory element is being
used?
A. Flip-flop
B. Read-only memory
C. Gates
D. Static-RAM
Howmany flip-flop
circuits does a decade
counter have?
A. One
B. Four
C. Five
D. Ten
Whatis the counter that
follows the binary
sequence?
A. Binary counter
B. Simplex counter
C. Shift counter
D. Decimal counter
Bit(b) smallest unit of
digital (binary) information.
Byte (B) a group of 8 bits.
Nybble a group of 4 bits.
Word a group of bits whose
length depends on the system.
Bitsper second (bps) measure
of speed of data transfer.
Physical
Prefix Digital Units (bytes)
Quantities
Kilo 10^3 2^10 = 1024

Mega 10^6 2^20 = 1048576
Giga 10^9 2^30 = 1073741824
Tera 10^12 2^40 = 1099511627776
Peta 10^15 2^50 = ??
Magnetic
HD, FD
Optical
CD, DVD
Semiconductor (Electronic)
Flash memory
Magneticcore
storage is made
up of tiny
doughnut-shaped
rings made of
ferrite (iron),
that are strung
on a grid of
very thin wires.

9
Semiconductor memory consists of
hundreds of thousands of tiny
electronic circuits etched on a
silicon chip.
Each of these electronic circuits
is called a bit cell and can be
in either an off or on state to
represent a 0 or 1 bit, depending
on whether or not current is
flowing in that cell.
Bubblememory consists of a
very thin crystal made of
semiconductor material.
ROM RAM
PROM DRAM
EPROM SRAM
RPROM SDRAM
EEPROM DDR

2
ROM (Read-Only Memory)
PROM
Programmable ROM
EPROM
Erasable PROM
EEPROM
Electrically Erasable PROM
Flash Memory
RAM (Random Access Memory)
SRAM
Static RAM
DRAM
Dynamic RAM
DDR
________ is a byte of
data stored in a memory
location.
A. 8 bits
B. Character
C. 4 bits
D. Memory word
________is called
retrieving data from
memory.
A. Accessing
B. Getting
C. Encoding
D. Reading
Groups of logic circuits that
are based on particular types
of elements (resistors,
transistors, and so forth)
Families are identified by the
manner in which the elements
are connected, and, in some
cases, by the types of elements
used.
Fan-Out
Power Dissipation
Propagation Delay
Noise Margin
Specifiesthe number of
standard loads that can be
connected to the output of the
gate without degrading its
normal operation.
Standardload minimum current

needed by an input of another
gate.
Representsthe amount of power
needed by the gate as delivered
by the power supply .
Expressed in milliwatts (mW).
Theaverage transition-delay
time for the signal to
propagate from the input to
output when the binary signal
changes its value.
Usually measured in nanoseconds

(ns)
Themaximum noise voltage added
to an input signal of a digital
circuit that does not cause an
undesirable change in the
circuit output.
Resistor Transistor Logic (RTL)
Diode Transistor Logic (DTL)
Transistor Transistor Logic
(TTL)
Emitter Coupled Logic (ECL)
Integrated Injection Logic
(IIL)
Complementary MOS (CMOS)
P-Type MOS (PMOS)
N-Type MOS (NMOS)
The earliest class of transistorized
digital logic circuit.
A class of digital circuits built
using resistors as the input network
and bipolar junction transistors
(BJTs) as switching devices.
Based on a transistor driven to its
saturation.
Standard gate: NOR
RTL Inverter
A bipolar transistor switch is the

simplest RTL gate (inverter or NOT
gate) implementing logical negation.
One-Transistor RTL NOR Gate
Multi-Transistor RTL NOR Gate
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Uses minimum number High power

of transistors dissipation
Limited fan-in
Low noise margin

0
A class of digital circuits that
is the direct ancestor of
transistortransistor logic.
The logic gating function is
performed by a diode and the
amplifying function is performed
by a transistor.
Standard gate: NAND
A major advantage
over the RTL is
the increased
fan-in
The logic gating function and the
amplifying function are performed by
transistors.
Invented in 1961 by James L. Buie of TRW
and it was originally named Transistor-
Coupled Transistor Logic (TCTL).
Improvement of the DTL
74xx for commercial use
54xx for military use
Prf
Standard -
Low Power L
High Speed H
Schottky S
Low Power Schottky LS
Advanced Schottky AS
Advanced Low Power Schottky ALS
Fairchild Advanced Schottky F
(FAST)
PROPAGATION POWER
FAMILY DELAY DISSIPATION
(ns) (mW)
Standard 10 10
Low Power 33 1
High Speed 6 22
Schottky 3 19
Low Power Schottky 10 2
Advanced Schottky 2 8
Advanced Low Power
4 1.3
Schottky
FAST 3.5 5.4
A high-speed integrated circuit bipolar
transistor logic family where the
transistors are not operated in the
saturation region.
The fastest (low propagation delay)
Worst in noise immunity and power
dissipation
Sometimes called Current-Steering Logic
(CSL), Current-Mode Logic (CML), or
Current-Switch Emitter-Follower (CSEF)
logic.
Also Merged Transistor Logic
A fast circuit design based on

the use of transistors rather
than transistors in combination
with resistor.
Requires low power

Sometimes referred to as
Complementary-Symmetry
MetalOxideSemiconductor
(or COS-MOS).
Competes with TTL
Better performance than
TTL
Lower power consumption
Faster
IC number: 4000 series
Uses p-channel metal-oxide-
semiconductor field effect
transistors (MOSFETs) to implement
logic gates and other digital
circuits.
Arranged in a so-called "pull-up

network" (PUN) between the logic gate
output and positive supply voltage,
while a resistor is placed between
the logic gate output and the
negative supply voltage.
Uses n-type metal-oxide-semiconductor
field effect transistors (MOSFETs) to
implement logic gates and other
digital circuits.
Arranged in a so-called "pull-down

network" (PDN) between the logic gate
output and negative supply voltage,
while a resistor is placed between
the logic gate output and the
positive supply voltage.
Ina transistor-transistor-logic
(TTL), if the base collector
junction of a transistor is clamped
with a Schottky diode it becomes
Schottky TTL. What is the
significance of having this diode?
A. it increases the switching speed
B. it decreases the power dissipations
C. it increases the noise margin
D. it increases the fan-out
Abipolar logic family
that uses resistors at
its input circuit.
A. RTL
B. DTL
C. ECL
D. TTL
Refers to the ability of a
logic circuit to withstand
noise superimposed on its
input signal.
A. LOW noise immunity
B. HIGH noise immunity
C. noise immunity
D. noise figure
The number of logic gates
of the same family that
can be connected to the
input of a particular gate
without degrading the
circuit performance.
A. fan-in
B. fan-out
C. input-drive
D. input noise immunity
Classification of Computer:
According to purpose
General Purpose
Special Purpose
According to the type of technology

Mechanical
Electromechanical
Electronic
Mechanical or analog computers are
devices used for the computation of
mathematical problems.
Made up of components, such as
integrators, sliding racks, cams,
gears, springs, and driveshafts
Their physical size depends on the
number of functions the computer has
to perform.
They use electrical components to
perform some of the calculations and
to increase the accuracy
The size of the computer was reduced
The components used to perform the
calculations are devices such as
synchros, servos, resolvers,
amplifiers, servo amplifiers
They are special-purpose computers
Mathematicalprocesses were
solved by using electrical
voltages only, applied to
elements such as amplifiers,
summing networks,
differentiating, and
integrating circuits.
FIRST GENERATION
Uses vacuum tubes
Uses machine language
SECOND GENERATION
Uses Transistors
Uses Symbolic machine languages or assembly
languages
THIRD GENERATION
miniaturized circuits
FOURTH GENERATION AND BEYOND
Uses LSI and VLSI
Types:
Machine Language
The program is represented by 1s and 0s
Assembly Language
Uses abbreviations (OP codes) to
represent instructions
High-Level Language
Uses English-like language to write
instructions.
Categories:
System Software (Operating System)
Collection of programs which are needed
in the creation, preparation and
execution of the programs.
User Software (Application Software)
Thank You!

Computers New

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By:

John Ryan D. Regalario, ECE

2015 All Rights Reserved. TOP ECE Review Center 9/1/2017 6

2015 All Rights Reserved. TOP ECE Review Center 9/1/2017 7

Babbage developed the Difference Engine in 1822

Babbage developed the Analytical Engine

Has two cards: Operation card (for operations)

Lady Ada Byron, Countess of Lovelace, is The

2015 All Rights Reserved. TOP ECE Review Center 9/1/2017 8

Used 3in x 5in punch

His company is the

2015 All Rights Reserved. TOP ECE Review Center 9/1/2017 9

2015 All Rights Reserved. TOP ECE Review Center 9/1/2017 11

2015 All Rights Reserved. TOP ECE Review Center 9/1/2017 12

First Electronic Digital Computer

By John Atanasoff and Clifford Berry,

2015 All Rights Reserved. TOP ECE Review Center 9/1/2017 13

Automatic Sequence Controlled

By Howard Aiken, Harvard University,

The First Automatic General Purpose

Electronic Numerical Integrator and

The First true general-purpose

By Presper Eckert Jr, and John Mauchly,

Not a stored-program computer

2015 All Rights Reserved. TOP ECE Review Center 9/1/2017 15

Electronic Discrete Variable

First Stored Program Computer

By Mauchly and Eckert, 1952

2015 All Rights Reserved. TOP ECE Review Center 9/1/2017 16

Electronic Delay Storage Automatic

Cambridge University, England, May

Uses symbolic programming instead

Universal Automatic Computer

Based on EDVAC, 1948

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r4 r3 r2 r1 r0 r-1 r-2 r-3 r-4 r-5

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Fromthe quotient, multiply the

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