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(Eq. 9.19)
(Eq. 9.20)
hth (%)
process, cycle 1-2-3-4-1 has the greater
thermal efficiency.
Accordingly, the Brayton cycle thermal 2 4 6 8 10
efficiency increases as the compressor Compressor
pressure ratio increases. Pressure Ratio
Effects of Compressor Pressure Ratio on
Brayton Cycle Performance
Increasing the compressor pressure ratio from p2/p1 to
p2/p1 changes the cycle from 1-2-3-4-1 to 1-2-3-4-1.
Since the average temperature of heat
addition is greater in cycle 1-2-3-4-1, and
both cycles have the same heat rejection
process, cycle 1-2-3-4-1 has the greater
thermal efficiency.
Accordingly, the Brayton cycle thermal
efficiency increases as the compressor
pressure ratio increases.
The turbine inlet temperature also
increases with increasing compressor
ratio from T3 to T3.
Effects of Compressor Pressure Ratio on
Brayton Cycle Performance
However, there is a limit on the maximum
temperature at the turbine inlet imposed by
metallurgical considerations of the turbine blades.
Lets consider the effect of increasing compressor
pressure ratio on Brayton cycle performance when
the turbine inlet temperature is held constant.
This is investigated using the T-s diagram as
presented next.
Effects of Compressor Pressure Ratio on
Brayton Cycle Performance
The figure shows the T-s diagrams of two ideal
Brayton cycles having the same turbine inlet temperature
but different compressor pressure ratios.
Cycle A has the greater
compressor pressure ratio and
thus the greater thermal efficiency.
Cycle B has the larger enclosed
area and thus the greater net work
developed per unit of mass flow.
For Cycle A to develop the same
net power as Cycle B, a larger
mass flow rate would be required
and this might dictate a larger
system.
Effects of Compressor Pressure Ratio on
Brayton Cycle Performance
Accordingly, for turbine-powered vehicles, where
size and weight are constrained, it may be
desirable to operate near the compressor pressure
ratio for greater net work per unit of mass flow and
not the pressure ratio for greater thermal efficiency.
Gas Turbine Power Plant Irreversibility
The most significant irreversibility by far is the
irreversibility of combustion. This type of irreversibility is
considered in Chap. 13, where combustion fundamentals
are developed.
Irreversibilities related to flow through the turbine and
compressor also significantly impact gas turbine
performance. They act to
decrease the work developed by the turbine and
increase the work required by the compressor,
thereby decreasing the net work of the power plant.
(W t / m ) (h3 h4 )
ht
(Wt / m ) s (h3 h4s )
(W c / m ) s (h2s h1 )
hc
(Wc / m ) (h2 h1 )
The net work per unit of mass flowing is not altered with the
inclusion of a regenerator. Accordingly, since the heat added is
reduced, thermal efficiency increases.
Regenerator Effectiveness
Since a finite temperature difference must exist
between the two streams of the regenerator for heat
transfer to take place between the streams, the cold-
side exiting temperature, Tx, must be less than the
hot-side entering temperature, T4.
As the stream-to-stream
temperature difference becomes
small Tx approaches T4, but
cannot exceed it. Accordingly, T4
Tx T4.
As the enthalpy of the air
varies only with temperature, we
also have hx h4.
Regenerator Effectiveness
The regenerator effectiveness is defined as
the ratio of the actual enthalpy increase of the air
flowing through the cold side of the regenerator,
hx h2, to the maximum theoretical enthalpy
increase, h4 h2.
(Eq. 9.27)
Regenerator Effectiveness
In practice, regenerator effectiveness values
range from 60-80%, approximately. Thus, the
temperature Tx at the combustor inlet is invariably
below the temperature T4 at the turbine exit.
Selection of a regenerator is largely an
economic decision.
With regeneration less fuel is consumed by the
combustor but another component, the
regenerator, is required.
When considering use of a regenerator, the
trade-off between fuel savings and regenerator
cost must be weighed.
Gas Turbines with Reheat and Regeneration
A modification of the Brayton cycle that increases
the net work developed is multistage expansion
with reheat.
The figure shows a cycle with two turbine stages
and a reheat combustor between the stages.
Gas Turbines with Reheat and Regeneration
The ideal Brayton cycle with reheat is 1-2-3-a-b-4-1.
The ideal Brayton cycle without reheat is 1-2-3-4-1.
The reheat cycle has a larger enclosed area than
the cycle without reheat and thus a greater net work
developed per unit of mass flowing, which is the aim.
Cycle without reheat
T4
T4
Gas Turbines with
Intercooling and Regeneration
Another modification of the Brayton cycle that
increases the net work developed is compression
with intercooling.
The figure shows two compressor stages and an
intercooler between the stages.
Gas Turbines with
Intercooling and Regeneration
The accompanying p-v diagram
shows the processes for internally
reversible operation:
Process 1-c. Isentropic
compression from state 1, where
pressure is p1, to state c, where
pressure is pi.
Process c-d. Constant-pressure
cooling from temperature Tc to
temperature Td.
Process d-2. Isentropic
compression to state 2, where
pressure is p2.
Isentropic compression without intercooling is
represented by process 1-c-2.
Gas Turbines with
Intercooling and Regeneration
Recalling that for such internally reversible processes the
work input per unit of mass flowing is given by vdp, the
following area interpretations apply, each per unit of mass
flowing:
With intercooling, area 1-c-d-2-a-b-1
represents the work input.
Without intercooling, area 1-2-a-b-1
represents the work input.
The cross-hatched area c-d-2-2-c
represents the reduction in work
achieved with intercooling.
If the total turbine work remains the same, a reduction in
compressor work results in an increase in the net work
developed, which is the aim.
Gas Turbines with
Intercooling and Regeneration
While compression with and without intercooling each
bring the air to the same final pressure, p2, the final
temperature with intercooling, T2, is lower than the final
temperature without intercooling, T2.
Comparing states 2 and 2 on the T-s diagram, T2 < T2.
The lower temperature at the compressor exit with
intercooling enhances the potential for regeneration.
T2
T2
Gas Turbines with
Intercooling and Regeneration
When compression with intercooling is used together with
regeneration, the thermal efficiency can increase significantly
over that for the cycle without intercooling.
The T-s diagram also shows that for cooling to the
surroundings the temperature Td at the intercooler exit
cannot be less than T1, the temperature of the air entering
the compressor from the surroundings: Td T1.
Td
T1
Regenerative Gas Turbine
with Reheat and Intercooling
Shown here is a regenerative gas turbine that
incorporates reheat and intercooling.
With these modifications to the basic Brayton cycle:
The net work
output is
increased.
The thermal
efficiency is
increased.
Regenerative Gas Turbine
with Reheat and Intercooling
Applying mass and energy rate
balances at steady state, we
obtain the following expressions,
each per unit of mass flowing:
Total turbine work:
W t
= (h6 h7) + (h8 h9) = ht1(h6 h7s) + ht2(h8 h9s)
m
where ht1 and ht2 denote the isentropic efficiencies of turbines 1 and 2,
respectively.
Total compressor work:
W c
= (h2 h1) + (h4 h3) = (h2s h1)/hc1 + (h4s h3)/hc2
m
where hc1 and hc2 denote the isentropic efficiencies of compressors 1
and 2, respectively.
Regenerative Gas Turbine
with Reheat and Intercooling
Applying mass and energy rate
balances at steady state, we
obtain the following expressions,
each per unit of mass flowing:
Total heat added:
Q in
= (h6 h5) + (h8 h7)
m
In this application, the regenerator effectiveness is:
hreg = (h5 h4)/(h9 h4)
For cooling to the surroundings, the temperature at the
exit of the intercooler, T3, cannot be less than the
temperature of the air entering the compressor from the
surroundings: T3 T1.
Gas Turbine-Based Combined Cycle
The exhaust temperature of the simple gas turbine
is typically well above the ambient temperature, and
thus the hot gas exiting the turbine has significant
thermodynamic utility (exergy) that can be used cost-
effectively.
Ways to utilize this potential include:
The regenerative cycle previously considered.
A combined cycle namely, a cycle that
couples two power cycles such that the energy
discharged by heat transfer from the higher-
temperature cycle is used as a heat input for the
lower-temperature cycle.
Combined Gas Turbine-Vapor Power Cycle
Illustrated here is a combined cycle
involving gas and vapor power cycles:
The cycles are combined using an
interconnecting heat-recovery
steam generator that serves as the
boiler for the vapor power cycle.
The combined cycle has the gas
turbines high average temperature of
heat addition and the vapor power
cycles low average temperature of
heat rejection.
Thermal efficiency is greater than
either cycle would have individually.
Increasingly, combined gas turbine-vapor power plants are
being used world-wide for electric power generation.
Combined Gas Turbine-Vapor Power Cycle
The net power developed by the
combined cycle is the sum of the net
power developed by each cycle.
The thermal efficiency of the
combined cycle is the net power
output divided by the rate of heat
addition.
(Eq. 9.28)
Va V5
Gas Turbines for Aircraft Propulsion
The increase in velocity from diffuser inlet, Va, to nozzle
exit, V5, gives rise to the thrust developed by the engine
in accord with Newtons second law of motion (Eq. 9.31).
In harmony with air-standard analysis, we assume air
modeled as an ideal gas flows through the engine shown
in the schematic and the temperature rise that would be
obtained with combustion is achieved by heat transfer
from an external source.
Va V5
Gas Turbines for Aircraft Propulsion
If the air flows through the components of the turbojet engine
without irreversibilities and stray heat transfer, air undergoes
the five processes shown on the T-s diagram:
Process a-1: Air at velocity Va enters the diffuser and
decelerates isentropically, while experiencing an increase in
pressure.
Process 1-2: The air experiences a further increase in
pressure isentropically, owing to work done by the compressor.
Va V5
Gas Turbines for Aircraft Propulsion
If the air flows through the components of the turbojet engine
without irreversibilities and stray heat transfer, air undergoes
the five processes shown on the T-s diagram:
Process 2-3: The temperature of the air increases at constant
pressure as it receives a heat transfer from an external source.
Process 3-4: The high-pressure, high-temperature air
expands isentropically through the turbine, driving the
compressor.
Va V5
Gas Turbines for Aircraft Propulsion
If the air flows through the components of the turbojet engine
without irreversibilities and stray heat transfer, air undergoes
the five processes shown on the T-s diagram:
Process 4-5: The air continues to expand isentropically
through the nozzle, achieving a velocity, V5, at the engine exit
much greater than the velocity, Va, at the engine inlet, and
thereby developing thrust.
Va V5
Review: Nozzle and Diffuser Modeling
The one-inlet, one-exit energy rate balance at
steady state reads:
(V 2
V 2
)
0 Q cv W cv m (hi he ) i e
g ( zi z e )
2