AP Review: Unit 6A

By Harrison Alch and Karen Sittig

May 1, 2008
Quantum Mechanics: Constants
c = the speed of light = 2.998*108 m/s
= wavelength (generally in nm)
h = Plancks constant = 6.63*10-34 J*s
E = energy (generally in J)
m = mass
mass of an electron = 9.11*10-31 kg
Quantum Mechanics: Equations
c=v
Wavelength of a photon (massless)
E = hv
Energy of a photon
= h / mv
deBroglie wavelength takes mass of a
particle into account
 Example problem
It requires a photon with a minimum energy of
4.41 x 10-19 J to emit electrons from sodium metal.
What is the minimum frequency needed to emit
electrons from sodium via the photoelectric effect?
E = hv
4.41 x 10-19 J = (6.626 x 10-34 J*s) * v
v = 6.66 x 1014 Hz
Calculate the wavelength of one photon of this light.
What color would it be?
= c/v
= (2.998 x 108 m/s)/(6.66 x 1014 Hz)
= 450 nm
This light would be blue
 Example problem cont.
If sodium is irradiated with light of 439 nm, what is
the maximum possible kinetic energy of the emitted
electrons?
E439 = hc/
E439 = (6.626 x 10-34 J*s)(2.998 x 108 m/s)/(439 x 10-9 m)
E439 = 4.52 x 10-19 J
Ek = E439 Emin
Ek = (4.52 x 10-19 J) (4.41 x 10-19 J)
Ek = 1.1 x 10-20 J/e-
 IMFAs
Intermolecular forces of attraction
General types:
London Dispersion Forces
Dipole-Dipole Forces
Ion-Dipole Forces
Hydrogen Bonds
 London Dispersion Forces
Exist between all atoms and molecules
Are the only forces between nonpolar
atoms and molecules
The weakest type of intermolecular forces,
caused by instantaneous dipoles
Dispersion forces tend to increase in
strength with increasing molecular weight.
 Dipole-Dipole and Ion-Dipole
Dipole-Dipole Forces
Exist between polar molecules when the net
positive end of one attracts the net negative end
of another
Only exist when molecules are close together.

Ion-Dipole Forces
exist between ions and polar molecules
A cation attracts the negative ends of polar
molecules, an anion attracts the positive ends.
 Hydrogen Bonds
Exist only between an
H bonded to an O, F,
or N in a very polar
bond and usually
another O, F, or N, or
other very
electronegative atom.
The strongest type of
from http://kentsimmons.uwinnipeg.ca/
intermolecular forces.
Comparative Strength of IMFAs
When molecules of 2 substances are relatively
the same mass, the different strengths of
attractive forces are due to differences in the
length of the dipole moment.
When molecules of 2 substances are different
masses, the different strengths of attractive
forces are due to the strength of dispersion
forces (the more massive one generally has
stronger attractive forces).
 Some Properties of Liquids
Viscosity
The resistance of liquid to flow
Liquids that have stronger IMFAs are more viscous
Viscosity also increases with the increasing ability of
molecules to become tangled (some isomers are
more viscous than others)
Surface Tension
The amount of energy required to increase the
surface area of a liquid by a given amount
Liquids that have stronger IMFAs tend to have more
surface tension
The surface tension of water at 293 K is 0.0729 J/m2
The surface tension of mercury at 239 K is 0.46 J/m2
 Example Problems
Why is the surface tension of CHBr greater than
3

CHCL3?
CHBr has a higher molar mass, is more
3

polarizable, and has stronger dispersion

forces, so the surface tension is greater.
Why does as temperature increases, oil flow
faster through a narrow tube?
The viscosity of the oil decreases because the
average kinetic energy of the molecules
increase.
 Periodic Trends
Size
Generally, size decreases across a period and increases down a
family
As the nuclear charge increases but no new electron orbitals are
added, the valence electrons are held more strongly by the nucleus,
decreasing the size
In transition metals, the electrons in filled d orbitals tend to repel one
another strongly enough to result in a deviation from this trend
Electron Affinity
Generally, electron affinity increases across a period and decreases
down a family
Across a period, the effective nuclear charge increases, more readily
attracting electrons
Down a family, the distance from the nucleus decreases, making it
more difficult to attract electrons
 Period Trends cont.
Ionization Energy
Ionization energy tends to increase across a period and up a family
As more protons are added to the nucleus, they increase the
effective nuclear charge and hold the valence electrons more tightly,
so removing an electron requires more energy
As more orbitals are added, the valence electrons are farther away
from the nucleus, reducing the pull of the protons on the electrons
and allowing them to be removed more easily.
Ionic Radii
Cations are smaller than their parent atoms due to the remaining
electrons being held more tightly than before
Anions are larger than their parent atoms due to increased electron-
electron repulsions
For a series of isoelectronic ions and atoms, atomic radius
decreases with increasing atomic number (and increasing nuclear
charge)
 Example Problems
Put these atoms in order of increasing size:
Na, Ca, K, Be, & S
Be, S, Na, Ca, K
Which gas has a lower boiling point, Cl2 or
Kr?
Kr would have a lower boiling point, despite its
higher molar mass.
Which has stronger IMFAs, CH4 or CH3OH?
CH3OH would have stronger IMFAs due to its
polar OH group.
 Drawing Lewis Structures
1. Pick a central atom. This should be of the element
with the lowest electronegativity (generally from
families 3, 4, or 5, or a noble gas)
2. Determine how many bonds are needed by subtracting
the valence electrons (number of family) from the total
electrons needed to complete octets (or duets etc) and
dividing by two.
3. Connect each atom with a single bond.
4. Add more bonds if needed. Otherwise, complete the
octets on the outer atoms.
5. If there are extra electrons, add them to the central
atom.
 Example Problems
XeF4
CH4
NH3
H3O+
 Molecular Shapes
Can be classified by electron geometry or
molecular geometry
Electron geometry doesnt take lone pairs
into account when assigning names,
molecular geometry does
The hybridization of the central atom is
determined by the electron geometry
 Electron Geometry

Linear
2 bonding domains
No hybrid orbitals

Tetrahedral
4 bonding domains
sp2 hybridized

Trigonal Planar
3 bonding domains
sp hybridized
Pictures from www.wikipedia.org
 Electron Geometry cont.

Octahedral
Trigonal Bipyramidal
6 bonding domains
5 bonding domains
sp2d2 hybridized
sp2d hybridized

Pictures from www.wikipedia.org

 Molecular Geometry

Bent
See-Saw 1 or 2 lone pairs
6 bonding domains sp or sp2 hybridized
sp2d hybridized

Trigonal Pyramidal
1 lone pair
sp2 hybridized

Pictures from www.wikipedia.org

Molecular Geometry cont.

Linear
3 lone pairs T-Shaped
sp2d hybridized 2 lone pairs
sp2d hybridized

Square Pyramidal
Square Planar 1 lone pair
2 lone pairs sp2d2 hybridized
sp2d2 hybridized

Pictures from www.wikipedia.org

 Sample Problems
Name the electron geometry:
XeF4
CH4
SF6
Name the molecular geometry:
NH3
H2O
PCl5
State the hybridization of the central atom:
XeF2
BrF5
SO2
 Solutions to Sample Problems
Name the electron geometry:
XeF4 - Octahedral
CH4 - Tetrahedral
ClF3 Trigonal Bipyramidal
Name the molecular geometry:
NH3 Trigonal Pyramidal
H2O - Bent
PCl5 - Octahedral
State the hybridization of the central atom:
XeF2 - sp2d2
BeCl2 - unhybridized
SO2 sp2