THE SIMPLE CATEGORICAL

SYLLOGISM

THE BASIC STRUCTURE

A Simple Categorical Syllogism is composed of three (3) categorical or
attributive propositions so put together that the subject (t) and predicate
(T) of the conclusion are united or separated through the intermediacy of
a middle term (M)

Every animal is mortal;

but every dog is an animal;
therefore every dog is mortal.
 THE SIMPLE CATEGORICAL
SYLLOGISM
The first proposition is the major premise; the second proposition is the
minor premise; and the third is the conclusion. Mortal the predicate of
the conclusion, is the major term; dog, the subject of the conclusion, is
the minor term; and animal, which occurs in both premises but not in
the conclusion, is the middle term.

A. Major Term
The major term is the predicate of the conclusion. It must occur
in the conclusion and in the premise, generally the first, which is
therefore called the major premise. The major term shall be
symbolized by T, or, to display the structure of a syllogism more
graphically, by a rectangle.
THE SIMPLE CATEGORICAL
SYLLOGISM

B. Minor Term

The minor term is the subject of the conclusion. It must occur in

the conclusion and in the premise in which the term does not
occur. It is often introduced by the adversative conjunction but
(because in controversy it introduces a turn of thought to the
expectations of an opponent). Minor term shall be designated by
t, or, to display the structure of a syllogism more graphically, by
an ellipse.
THE SIMPLE CATEGORICAL
SYLLOGISM

C. Middle Term

The middle term occurs in each of the premises but not in the
conclusion. In the major premise, it occurs in conjunction with the
major term; and in minor premise, in conjunction with the minor
term. It is the medium through which the major and minor term
are united in the affirmative syllogism and separated in the
negative syllogism. As opposed to the middle term, the minor
and major terms are called extremes.
THE SIMPLE CATEGORICAL
SYLLOGISM

Example of a graphically marked simple categorical syllogism:

Every animal is mortal;

But every dog is an animal;
Therefore every dog is mortal.
 THE SIMPLE CATEGORICAL
SYLLOGISM
Exercise: First pick out the conclusion of each of the following
syllogisms. Then pick out the minor and major terms, then
the minor and major premises, and, finally, the middle term.
1. All metals are conductors of electricity;
but copper is a metal;
therefore copper is a conductor of electricity.

2. No insulator is a good conductor of electricity;

but copper is a good conductor of electricity;
therefore copper is not an insulator.
 THE SIMPLE CATEGORICAL
SYLLOGISM

3. George W. Carver was a Negro;

but George W. Carver was an eminent scientist;
therefore some eminent scientist was a Negro.

4. The building on the corner of Grand and Lindell must be a church.

Why? Because it is a building having a steeple with a cross on it,
and all such buildings are churches.

5. Every X is a Y; therefore, since every Y is a Z, every X must also be

a Z.
 THE SIMPLE CATEGORICAL
SYLLOGISM
6. A good leader has the confidence of his followers; Joe Doe, though,
does not have the confidence of his followers, and is therefore not a
good leader.
7. Since winesaps are apples and apples are fruit, winesaps, too,
must be fruit.
8. Some metal are precious; this follows from the fact that gold and
silver which are metals, are precious.
9. Diamonds are precious; and since diamonds are stones, it follows
that some stones are precious.
10. Some mortal are rather stupid. You can infer this from the fact that
all men are mortal, and some men are rather stupid.
 GENERAL RULES OF THE
CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISM

A. THE RULES OF THE TERMS

1. Their Number and Arrangement
1.Their Number
2.Their Arrangement

2. Their Quantity, or Extension

3. The Quantity of the Minor and Major Terms:
4. The Quantity of the Middle Term:
 GENERAL RULES OF THE
CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISM
B. THE RULES OF THE PROPOSITIONS
1. Their Quality
5. If both premises are affirmative
6. If one premise is affirmative and the other negative
7. If both premises are negative,
2. Their Quantity (Corollaries of Rules 3 and 4)
8. At least one premise must be
9. If a premise is particular, the conclusion must be
3. Their Existential Import
10. If the actual real existence of a subject has not been
asserted in the premises
 GENERAL RULES OF THE
CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISM
a. The Rules of the Terms
1. THEIR NUMBER AND ARRANGEMENT
Rule 1. There must be three terms and only three- the major
term, the minor term and the middle term.

The necessity of having only three terms follows from the

very nature of a categorical syllogism, in which a minor (t) and
a major (T) term are united or separated through the
intermediacy of a third term, the middle term (M).
 GENERAL RULES OF THE
CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISM
The terms must have exactly the same meaning and (except for
certain legitimate changes in supposition) must be used in exactly
the same way in each occurrence. A term that has a different
meaning in each occurrence is equivalently two terms. We must be
especially on our guard against ambiguous middle terms.

Example: Every animal is mortal;

but every dog is an animal;
therefore every dog is mortal.
Violation: Men must eat;
but the picture on the wall is a man;
therefore the picture on the wall must eat.
 GENERAL RULES OF THE
CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISM
Rule 2. Each term must occur in two propositions. The major
term must occur in the conclusion, as predicate, and in one of
the premises, which is therefore called the major premise. The
minor term must occur in the conclusion, as subject, and in the
other premise, which is therefore called the minor premise. The
middle term must occur in both premises but not in the
conclusion. Hence, there must be three propositions.
The necessity of having three terms arranged in this way in three
propositions also follows from the very nature of a categorical
syllogism. Two propositions (the premises) are required for the
middle term to fulfill its function of uniting or separating the minor and
major terms and a third proposition (the conclusion) is required to
express the union or separation of the minor and major terms.
 GENERAL RULES OF THE
CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISM
1. THE QUANTITY, OR EXTENTION, OF THE TERMS
Rule 3. The major and minor terms may not be universal (or
distributed) in the conclusion unless they are universal (or
distributed) in the premises.
The reason for this rule is that we may not conclude about all
the inferiors of a term if the premises have given us information
about only some of them. The conclusion is an effect of the
premises and must therefore be contained in them implicitly; but
all are not necessarily contained in someat least not by virtue of
the form of argumentation alone.
Violation: All dogs are mammals;
but no men are dogs;
therefore no men are mammals.
 GENERAL RULES OF THE
CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISM
Violation of this rule is called either extending a term or an
illicit process of a term. There is an illicit process of the major term
if the major term is particular in the premise but universal in the
conclusion; and an illicit process of the minor term, if the minor
term is particular in the premise but universal in the conclusion.
Take note that there is no illicit process if the major or minor
term is universal in the premises and particular in the conclusion.
To go from a particular to a universal is forbidden, but to go from a
universal to a particular is not permissible.
 GENERAL RULES OF THE
CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISM
Rule 4. The middle term must be universal, or distributed, at
least once.
The reason for this rule is that when the middle term is
particular in both premises it might stand for a different portion of
its extension in each occurrence and thus be equivalent to two
terms, and therefore fail to fulfill its function of uniting or
separating the minor and major terms.
Violation: A dog is an animal;
but a cat is an animal;
therefore a cat is a dog.
Violation of this rule is often called the fallacy of the
undistributed middle.
 GENERAL RULES OF THE
CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISM
b. The Rules of the Propositions
1. THE QUALITY OF THE PROPOSITIONS
Rule 5. If both premises are affirmative, the conclusion must be
affirmative.
The reason for this rule is that affirmative premises either
unite the minor and major terms, or else do not bring them into
relationship with one another at allas when there is an
undistributed middle. In neither case may the major term be
denied of the minor term. Hence, to get a negative conclusion you
must have oneand only onenegative premise.
Violation: All sin is detestable;
but some pretense is sin;
therefore some pretense is not detestable.
 GENERAL RULES OF THE
CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISM
As soon as you see that both premises are affirmative but the
conclusion negative, you can be sure that your syllogism is
invalid. Be on your guard, however, against apparent affirmative
or negative propositions.

Example: Animals differ from angels;

but man is an animal;
therefore man is not an angel.

The syllogism is valid because differ from is equivalent to

are not.
 GENERAL RULES OF THE
CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISM
Rule 6. If one premise is affirmative and the other negative,
the conclusion must be negative.
The reason for this rule is that the affirmative premise unites the
middle term with one of the extremes (that is, with either the minor
or the major term) and the negative premise separates the middle
term from the other extreme. Two things, of which the one is
identical with a third thing and the other is different from that same
third thing, cannot be identical with one another. Hence, if a
syllogism with a negative premise concludes at all, it must
conclude negatively.
Violation: Every B is a C;
but some A is not a B;
therefore some A is a C.
 GENERAL RULES OF THE
CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISM
However, there are apparent exceptions to this rule. Keep in
mind that many negative propositions are equivalent to
affirmative propositions and can be changed into them by one or
other kinds of immediate inference.

Example: Dogs are not centipedes;

but hounds are dogs;
therefore hounds differ from centipedes.

This is a valid syllogism since the conclusion is equivalently

negative, since differ from is equivalent to are not.
 GENERAL RULES OF THE
CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISM
Rule 7. If both premises are negativeand not equivalently
affirmativethere is no conclusion at all.
To fulfill its function of uniting or separating the minor and the
major term, the middle term must itself be united with at least one
of them. But if both premises are negative, the middle term is
denied of each of the extremes and we learn nothing about the
relationship of the extremes towards one another.
Violation: A stone is not an animal;
but a dog is not a stone;
therefore a dog is not an animal.
 GENERAL RULES OF THE
CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISM
2. THE QUANTITY OF THE PROPOSITIONS

Rule 8. At least one premise must be universal.

Example: Every animal is mortal;

but every dog is an animal;
therefore every dog is mortal.

Rule 9. If a premise is particular, the conclusion must be

particular.
 GENERAL RULES OF THE
CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISM
3. THE EXISTENTIAL IMPORT OF THE PROPOSITIONS

Rule 10. The actual real existence of a subject may not be

asserted in the conclusion unless it has been asserted in the
premises.
The reason for this rule is the general principle that nothing
may ever be asserted in the conclusion that has not been asserted
implicitly in the premises. This rule takes us out of the domain of
formal logic, which does not consider existence except
incidentally. We mention it only as a practical aid to argumentation.
 GENERAL RULES OF THE
CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISM
Exercises: Apply the general rules of the categorical syllogism to
the following examples.
1. All animals are substances;
but all frogs are animals;
therefore all frogs are substances.
2. All cows are animals;
but no horses are cows;
therefore no horses are animals.

3. Murder is sinful;
but abortion is murder;
therefore abortion is sinful.
 GENERAL RULES OF THE
CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISM
4. Contradictories are opposites;
but black and white are opposites;
therefore black and white are contrdictories.
5. All mammals have lungs;
but most fish do not have lungs;
therefore most fish are not mammals.
6. No dog is a man;
but Fido is not a man;
therefore Fido is a dog.
7. All mammals are viviparous;
but whales are viviparous;
therefore whales are mammals.
 GENERAL RULES OF THE
CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISM
8. Those who are not sick may go;
but Johnny is not sick;
therefore Johnny may go.
9. No dog is not an animal;
but no hound is not a dog;
therefore all hounds are animals.
10.Democracies are free;
but some of the governments of the Middle Ages were not
democracies;
therefore some of the governments of the Middles Ages
were not free.