Lesson I. Introduction
It’s the intellect
1. What is Logic? What do we mean by
critical thinking?
Logic comes from the word Logo, or symbol
that has meaning and can be understood by
the human mind.
Critical thinking refers to the utilization of
the man’s powers of reason, the power to
think and understand anything under the
sun. Human beings do not act without
thinking and in order for us to avoid
mistakes and perform what is right and
correct, we must analyze thoroughly the
matter at hand, and this is the process of
critical thinking.
The habit of analyzing what is right and
correct before any action will become
critical thinking skills.
2. Definition of Logic and Greek
philosopher Zeno
Logic was derived etymologically from the
Greek word “logike”, and is defined by
Greek philosopher Zeno, which refers to
mind, idea or concept that conveys
meanings.
Logic is defined as a science that studies
correct thinking and correct reasoning.
3. Philosophy & Nature of Logic
Philosophy is defined as a science that deals
with studying anything in this world with
the illumination of the human mind, or in
the light of reason.
Simply put, Logic is a branch of Philosophy
which deals with the study of what is right
and correct in things.
In other words, anything we do, it passes
first to the senses (in the body) then to the
intellect (in the human soul).
not the body that understands and gives
meaning to what the senses have sensed.
4. Significance of Logic
How significant is Logic to our daily lives?
What is its significance to the nursing
profession?
5. Three Mental Activities
The human mind never tires, only the body
because it is made of matter. Even when we
sleep, the human mind is conscious
continuously.
In anything we do, in a split of a second, we
undergo mental activities.
1. Simple Apprehension- this refers to the
process when the mind simply and
superficially perceives things.
2. Judgment- the mental process whereby
the mind organizes the ideas simply
perceived and concludes.
3. Reasoning- the higher form of mental
process that gives the meaning and
explanation of the mind’s conclusion on
things.
These 3 mental activities happen in a split of
a second that we are not aware but ever
since we were born, our mental life also
begun.
6. Division of Logic
1. Inductive Logic- a mental process
that starts from particulars to universals,
from parts to the whole.
2. Deductive Logic – a mental
process that starts from universals to
particulars, from whole to the parts.
 d. Nonpolitical
Lesson 2: TERMS e. Moral
f. Educated
What is a term? It is a word/phrase to
g. Cultured
express a concept.
h. Trees
1. Nature of Terms i. Men
j. Nonmen
Terms are words with meanings, an
k. Immoral
expression of an idea or a thing conceived
l. Absent
by the human mind.
m. Rose flower
2. Properties of Terms
Kinds of Terms
a. Singular – refers to terms that
a. Univocal – terms with one meaning
specifies to one thing.
b. Equivocal – terms with many meanings
b. Particular – refers to terms that point
Examples
to more than one thing.
1. Light
c. Universal - refers to terms inclusive
2. Right
to all without exception.
3. Left
Practice Exercises c. Analogous – terms which are different
but are closely related to convey its
a. Peter is sick. meaning.
b. He is my handsome teacher. Examples: If baker is to bread,
c. They are humble and kind. then carpenter is to -----. Teacher
d. All flowers are beautiful. is to student, doctor is to patient,
e. Several days are mostly sunny. then gardener is to ---.
f. Most of the time are precious
moments. d. Paradoxical – terms opposite to another
g. All in love and in war is fair. but can go together to convey one
h. Filipinos are Palaweños. meaning. Examples: bittersweet, sweet
i. She is beautiful. and sour, he-woman, she-woman
j. PSU is a premier university in
Region 4-B. e. Comprehension and Extension of Terms
Comprehension – refers to our
3. Quality & Quantity of Terms understanding of the term.

Quantity refers to the properties of terms. Extension- refers to which we can apply
our understanding of the term.
Quality refers whether the term is negative
or positive General rule: The greatest is our
comprehension, the lesser is the
Practice Exercises extension. The lesser our comprehension
a. Legal the greater is the extension.
b. Illegal
c. Unknown
 Example: 1. Obvertend : All students are
scholars.
Comprehension
Extension Obverse: No student is not a scholar.
Patient : onco, gastric, pedia, geria, 2. Obvertend: Some mistakes are
surgical, etc nonreparable.
Gastroenteritis cancer: colon, stomach Obverse: Some mistakes are not reparable.
School: elem, high school, colleges, 3.Contraposition- using negative and
univ,public, private double negatives without altering the
meaning of the contraponend.
Univ in Palawan: HTU, PSU, WPU
Contraponend: She is a sensitive and
f. Supposition of Terms
sensible person.
1. Conversion- exchanging the position
Contraposit: She is not insensitive and not
of the subject and the predicate of the
a non-sensible person.
statement without altering its meaning.

Lesson 3: The Proposition

a.Simple conversion – simply 1. Nature of Proposition
exchanging the placement of subject and a. Statement
the predicate in the statement.
A statement is a declarative sentence that is
Example: debatable.
Convertend: Some flowers are red. Example:

Converse : Some red (things) are 1. Today is Monday.

flowers. 2. She is a friend to me.
3. I am a simple person with simple
b. Accidental conversion joys.
1.Convertend: All Cuyunos are 4. All things are bright and
Filipinos. beautiful.

Converse: Some Filipinos are Practice Exercise: Which is a statement?

Cuyunos. 1. I wish to achieve success in the
2. Convertend: All students are in their future.
uniform. 2. OMG..he did that?
3. Who are you by the way?
Converse: Some who are in their 4. Hey, the house is burning!
uniforms are students. 5. Stealing is an immoral act.
2. Obversion- Using double negatives 6. How I wish I can help you now.
which do not alter the meaning of the
obvertend.
 b. Quality b. Latin Nego = to deny (~)
st
1 vowel = E = Singular or Universal ~
Statements can be positive or negative.
2nd vowel = O = Particular ~
Example: Example:
1. Nobody is here. = E
This is not for you. 2. The place is 100% darkness. = E
The prisoner cannot be found. 3. Some flowers are not fragrant. =
O
Things will never happen that way. 4. Almost all were not happy. = O
5. Some laws are immoral. = O
He is the president of the company.
Tomorrow is Saturday. 4. Square of Opposition
They are kind and generous. - It has four sides of opposition which is
c. Certainty usually used in critical analyses of the
a. According to form: material conflicts of among the four sides of
According to reality: formal arguments.

2. Quantity & Quality of Proposition

a. quantifier – indicates the quantity of the
proposition: all, some, etc.
b. quality – indicates denial/negation or
affirmation.
a. negative – indicates denial/negation
Example: Today is not Tuesday.
He did an illegal activity.
positive - indicates affirmation or
acceptance/conformity.
Example: He is generous and humble.
3.The A, E, I, & O Propositions A. Contrary opposition – an opposition
a. Latin Affirmo = to affirm (+) between A and E or E and A. (universals)
1st vowel = A= Singular or Universal +
2nd bowel = I = Particular + B. Subcontraries – an opposition between I
Example: and O or O and I. (Particulars)
1. PSU is a government university.
=A C. Inferior Subaltern- an opposition between
2. Some people are charitable. = I Universal and its particular. (from Universal
3. All men are equal. = A to Particular)
4. Most of the students are females.
=I
D. Superior Subaltern – an opposition
between particulars and universals. (from
Particular to Universal)
E. Contradictory – an opposition that
contradicts each side of the X in the middle
of the square.
Example: Using 1= true, 0 = false &
1/0 = doubtful or indeterminate or there are
options in between, and always make the
numbered proposition as point of reference
in determining the truth value of the 3 sides
of the square.
A 1. If “All men are equal.”, is true, then
E a. “Men are never equal.”, is 0 .
O b. “Some men are not equal.”, is 0 .
I c. “ Some men are equal.”, is 1.
For easy recall for the A, E, I &O
formula:
Quantifier + Subject (S) + Predicate (P)
A: All S are P.
E: No S is P.
I: Some S are P.
O: Some S are not P.
Practice Exercise:
___1. If “No house is green.”, is false, then
___a. “Some houses are green.”, is ___.
___b. “Some houses are not green.”, is ___.
___c. “All houses are green.”, is ___.
___2. If“Some students are honest.”is
true,then
___a. “No student is honest.”, is ____.
___b. “All students are honest.”, is ___.
___c. “Some students are honest.”, is ___.
___3. If “All trees are tall.”, is false, then
___a. “Some trees are tall.”, is ___.
___b. “Some trees are not tall.”, is ___.
___c. “No tree is tall.”, is ___.
___4. If “Some people are friendly.”,is true,
then
___a. “All people are friendly.”. is ___.
___b. “Some people are not friendly.”. is __.
___c. “No one is friendly.”, is ___.
___5. If “No teacher is not a mentor.”, is
false, then
___a. “Some teachers are not mentors.”, is
__.
___b. “Some teachers are mentors.”, is ___.
___c. “All teachers are not mentors.”, is __.
Lesson IV. Symbolic Logic
There arguments or propositions that
are long that most of the time, it makes
tedious and confusing in determining its
truth values. Thus, we need to use the
symbolic logic.
1. The Symbols
a. Dot - ●
b. Wedge - v
 c. Horseshoe- ͻ 1. Either the nurses or the
d. triple bar - ≡ attendants conducted the
e. curl- ~ for negation/negative researches on community
concerns.
2. The Constants: The Connectives 2. I guess neither the scholars nor
a. Conjunction the monks constructed this
building.
con=with + junction=connect/connection
3. Neither Susie nor Narie is the
Conjunctions are terms that connect doctor.
one term to another term. These terms 4. Either Dante or the foreigner is
include the following: and, while, however, the artist.
moreover, although, despite, inspite, aside, c. Conditional
albeit, in lieu, furthermore, etc.
Conditional terms are terms that
Conjunctions are represented with express conditions to be met to obtain the
the symbol DOT (●) to connect the first consequence. The condition is what we call
term to another term. the antecedent
Practice Exercise: (ante=before/prior), and the result,
we call it the consequent.
1. Ana is a nurse and her brother is
a doctor. Conditional terms include, if – then,
2. He succeeded despite of much provided that, with the condition that, etc.
poverty.
Conditional terms are shown using
3. They came although they were
the HORSE SHOE symbol (ͻ).
very late.
4. This thing was given in lieu of Practice Exercise:
what was agreed.
1. If you study well, then you will
pass this course.
b. Disjunction
2. You will be healthy provided that
Dis= not + junction=connect/connection you change your bad lifestyle.
3. He can marry her with the
Disjunctions are terms that
condition that he has to prepare a
disconnect one term from the other term,
dowry of PhP100K.
meaning, only 1 term is acceptable or not,
4. If she comes, you can go.
never both. These terms express disjunction:
either or (positive) and the neither nor
d. Biconditional
(negative).
Bi=two/double
Disjunctions are represented with the Biconditional terms are terms that
symbol WEDGE (v) to disconnect one term show two/double conditions to obtain or
from the other term. execute an action which yields a result/
consequence.
Practice Exercise: These terms include but not limited
to: in case, if and only if, provided that and
only provided that, with the condition and
only with the condition, etc. Take note of the
strict condition indicated.
Biconditional is represented by the
symbol called TRIPLE BAR (≡).
Practice Exercise:
1. Press the button of the fire
alarm in case of fire.
2. BSN graduates will get their
licenses if and only if they
pass the NLE.
3. You can bring her to your
country provided that and
only provided that you
embrace our culture in its
entirety.
3. The Variables
Variable represents any term. Like a
sentence or a proposition or a statement to
facilitate us to determine the truth values of
an argument.
In this subject Logic, it is logical that
we follow the order of variables we are to
use.
Variables can be expressed by letters
of the alphabet or by numbers. For the sake
of uniformity and to avoid confusion, let’s
use the variables p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y, z.
Same with using numbers, it should be in its
order.
Practice Exercise:
1. Ana and Danny are nurses.
p ● q
2. Neither John nor Rusty is the
doctor.
~p v ~ q
3. I guess that either the scholars or
the monks constructed this
building
p ● ( q v r)
4. If you pass, then she will pass the
exam too and be happy.
p ͻ (q ● r )
5. She will it get if and only if she
will come. p ≡
q
6. The prisoner is nowhere to be
found. ~p
4. Symbolizing Statements
To determine the truth values of the
arguments/proposition, we should symbolize
first the argument using the symbolic logic.
Let’s master first the symbolizing the
statements before we compute for the truth
values. Correct symbolization yields correct
truth values.
Practice Exercise: (Using letters of the
alphabet)
1. If A is the center and B is the
guard, then C is the shooter and
D is the forward.
2. A is the MVP if and only if B is
the center, then C is the forward
and D is not the guard.
3. If Rizal is the national hero, then
neither Bonifacio nor Aguinaldo
are heroes, however, Rajah
Lapu-lapu is a true Filipino hero.
4. Mary is in the Operating Room
provided that either Sandy or
Resty is in the Medical Ward,
and Midie is in the pediatric
intensive care unit while Gandhi
 is in the ICU if and only if Rodz 3. I guess that either the scholars or
is the surgeon. the monks constructed this
building
5. Lizz is the painter, Marie is the
dancer but Rodney is the surgeon p ● ( q v r)
provided that Dann is the
4. If you pass, then she will pass the
psychiatrist.
exam too and be happy.
6. Computing Truth Values of the p ͻ (q ● r )
statements 1 ͻ ( 0 ● 0)
Statements have truth values, 1 ͻ 0
they are either true or false.
0

5. She will it get if and only if she

will come. p ≡
Rules to remember: q
6. The prisoner is nowhere to be
1. In conjunction, it is only true if p found. ~p
& q are both true. 7. If A is the center and B is the
2. In Disjunction, it is false if p & q guard, then C is the shooter and
are both false. D is the forward.
3. In Conditional, it is false when
the consequent or the q is false & 8. A is the MVP if and only if B is
both p & q are false. the center, then C is the forward
4. In biconditional, it is false when and D is not the guard.
one of variables is false 9. If Rizal is the national hero, then
neither Bonifacio nor Aguinaldo
Practice Exercises: Write the answer of the are heroes, however, Rajah
2 variables in BETWEEN them aligned with Lapu-lapu is a true Filipino hero.
its connective. Values: 1=true and 0=false
10. Mary is in the Operating Room
Given: p=1, q=0, r=0, s=1, t=1 provided that either Sandy or
1. Ana and Danny are nurses. Resty is in the Medical Ward,
p ● q and Midie is in the pediatric
1 ● 0 intensive care unit while Gandhi
0 is in the ICU if and only if Rodz
2. Neither John nor Rusty is the is the surgeon.
doctor. 11. Lizz is the painter, Marie is the
~p v ~ q dancer but Rodney is the surgeon
provided that Danny is the
~1 v ~0 psychiatrist.
0 v 1
1
 12. I guess neither the scholars nor
the monks constructed this
building.
13. PSU students are scholars and
are not unknown student
achievers, however, they are
required to possess the shared
values of the university and
practice the same in their
lifetime.
Lesson 5
Formal Proof of Deduction: The 10 Rules
of Inference
The Truth Table analysis is simple and
accurate but it is not so practical for testing
arguments of more than 4 variables.
1. Simplification (SP)
From a conjunction we can infer one
of the conjuncts.
p . q /⸫ p
or because a conjunction is
commutative, the order of the constituent
parts does not affect its truth value thus, we
can also infer the other conjunct p . q /⸫ q
2. Conjunction (CJ)
We can infer the conjunction of any
given individual statements, for the
conjunction of true statements is true.
p
q /⸫ p . q
3. Addition (AD)
To any given statement, we can add
any statement whatsoever by disjunction.
p/⸫pvq
4. Absorption (AB)
By this principle, a statement may be
conjoined to both sides of an implication.
p ͻ q / ⸫ (p . r) ͻ (q . r)
We can also conjoin the antecedent
to both sides of the implication
p ͻ q / ⸫ (p . p) ͻ (q . p)
But by applying the principle of
tautology (all true) on the antecedent and of
commutation to the consequent, the result is
p ͻ q / ⸫ p ͻ (p . q)
5. Disjunctive Syllogism (DS)
From a disjunction and a negation of
one of its components, we can derive the
other component.
pvq
~p/⸫q
A disjunction, like a conjunction, is a
commutative. Thus,
pvq
~q / ⸫ p
6. Modus Ponens (MP)
The consequent of a conditional can
be inferred when conditional statement and
its antecedent are asserted.
pͻq
p/⸫q
7. Modus Tollens (MT)
 We assert the negation of the
antecedent if the conditional and the
negation of its consequent are given.
pͻq
~q / ⸫ ~ p
8. Hypothetical Syllogism (HS)
From 2 conditional statements such
that the consequent of the 1st is the
antecedent of the 2nd , we infer another
conditional whose antecedent is the
antecedent of the 1st and the consequent is
the consequent of the 2nd.
pͻq
qͻ r/⸫pͻr
9. Constructive Dilemma (CD)
From a conjunction of 2 hypothetical
statements and a statement that disjoins the
antecedent of the hypothetical, we can infer
a disjunction of the consequents.
(p ͻ q) . (r ͻ s)
pvr/⸫qvs
10. Destructive Dilemma (DD)
A disjunction of the negated
antecedents may be derived from a
conjunction of two hypotheticals and a
disjunction of the negation of its
consequents.
(p ͻ q) . (r ͻ s)
~q v ~s / ⸫ ~ p v ~ r
Practice Exercises
Practice test 1: Symbolize the following and
identify the rules of inference is used to
derive the conclusion.
1. I won’t fail this course. So, either I
pass this course or I lose my bet.
p/⸫p v ̴q AD
2. If he is late, then he will both not
finish and perfect the test. So, he will
be late and will neither finish nor
perfect the test if he will be late.
3. Either Caloy will enter the race, if
and only if Loloy is the manager or
Andoy is the trainer. It is not the case
that Caloy’s being in the race is
equivalent to Loloy’s being manager.
So, Andoy is the trainer.
Practice test 2: Identify the rule of inference
used in deriving the conclusion of the
following:
1. (A.B) v (CvD)
~(A.B)/⸫ CvD = DS
2. (AͻB) ͻ [(CvB)ͻ(AͻB)]
3. ~[(CvD)ͻ(AͻB)]/⸫ ~(AͻB) =
MT
4. Aͻ(BvC)
(BvC)ͻ(D.E)/⸫ Aͻ(D.E)
5. (A.B)ͻ(DvE)
A.B/⸫DvE
6. CvD
E.F/⸫ (CvD).(E.F)
Practice Test: Give the justification for each
of the steps below horizontal line in the
following problems:
1 AƆB
 2 BƆC
3 CƆD
4 A/ ⸫ D.A
5 AƆC 1,2 HS
6 AƆD 3,5 HS
7 D 4,6 MP
8 D.A 4,7 CJ

Lesson 6: The Venn Diagram and the

Boolean Equation
A. Venn Diagram
Leonhard Euler first thought of
diagramming the relationships of class
inclusion and later on, it was revised by
John Venn into a simpler and more refined
system.

To represent the class/group that exists, we

use X.
To remove what is not included in the stated
proposition, we SHADE that class/group
which is not included.

Practice Exercises:
1. No one is perfect.
2. Some plants are yellow.
 3. All students were not absent. 2. No building is colored blue. ( E - No
4. Few leaves are not green S is P - SP = 0)
anymore.
5. Knowledgeable men are wise
men.
6. Nurses are compassionate and
God-fearing.

B. The Boolean Equation

Another way of representing the logical
relationships of the terms in categorical
statements is through the Boolean algebraic
notations.
For illustrations, see the Venn Diagrams
of the 4 forms.
The algebraic notations of the 4 3. Some papers are brown. (I - Some S
categorical statements are as follows: is P - SP ≠ 0)

Illustration:
1. All books are informative.( A - All S
are P. - S˜P = 0)

4. Some planets are not habitable.

(O - Some S are not P. - S˜P ≠ 0)

Practice Exercises:
Direction: Express the statements in
Boolean Equation and draw a Venn Diagram
for each.
1. An honest man is also a happy man.
 2. Most nations in Asia are under
strongman rules.
3. Not all political leaders are honest.
4. Light-material houses will not last
forever.
5. No one is indispensable.
6. No plant is white.
7. All living things are perfect creation
of God.
8. Some people are not reflective.
9. Righteous men are just and
understanding.
10. Some students are not scholars.
11. All human beings are equal.
12. A moral man is an upright man.
LESSON 7: The Categorical Syllogism
Example:
Mood
A -All humans are special.(major premise)
A -Filipinos are humans. (minor premise)
A - ⸫ Filipinos are special. (conclusion)
Mood: AAA
Major term (P): special=predicate of the ⸫
Minor term (S): Filipinos =subject of the ⸫
Middle term (M): humans, used by major &
minor premise.
The placement of the M in the syllogism is
what we call “Figure”.
To determine the validity of a syllogism, we
need to identify its Mood and Figure which
we call the FORM of the syllogism.

Many of our arguments actually fall. into

syllogistic patterns. Thus, a careful study of
syllogism is still useful and relevant to any
period of generations.
A. What is a syllogism?
Taken from the term “syl” meaning
“chain” and “logike” means
idea/concept/meaning.
It is a chain of statements which
convey meaning subject to critical analysis
whether valid or invalid.
B. Parts of Syllogism
1. Major Premise – that which
serves as the “umbrella” of the
syllogism.
2. Minor Premise – that which
supports the major premise.
3. Conclusion – that which follows
the minor premise, the result of
the major and minor premise.

Practice Exercises to determine the FORM:
1. Since some trees are hardwood,
hence some plants are not trees,
because some plants are not
hardwood.
Some trees are hardwood.
Some plants are not hardwood.
⸫ Some plants are not trees.
Form: IOO-2
2. All VWs are gas-pinchers; so the
Sakbayan is a gas-pincher since
it is a VW.
All VWs are gas-pinchers.
Sakbayan is a VW.
⸫ Sakbayan is a gas-pincher.
Form: AAA-1
3. Cities have lights.
Some cottons are light.
⸫ Some cottons are cities.
Form: AII- No M
C.The Rules of the Valid Categorical
Syllogism
1. There must be one and only one
M.
All plants are living things.
Roses are plants.
⸫ Roses are living things.
Form: AAA-1
2. The M must be distributed at least
once in the premises.
3. The distributed term in the
conclusion must be distributed in the
premises where it occurs.
4. No conclusion should follow from
two particular premises.
5. No conclusion should follow from
two negative premises.
6. If one of the premises is negative,
the conclusion must be negative.
7. If one of the premises is particular,
the conclusion must be particular.
8. The conclusion must follow from the
premises.
D. Venn Diagram of the Categorical
Syllogism
We will now use Venn Diagram in
testing the validity of a syllogism.
1. All plants are living things. M P d. Valid (1 pt)
Roses are plants. SM
⸫ Roses are living things. S P e. No rules violated. (2 pts)
a. Form: AAA-1 (1 pt.) 2. Each flower is beautiful. MP
Some flowers are grasses. MS
Let’s agree that the circle ⸫ All grasses are beautiful. S P
representing the M should be drawn below a. Form: AIA-3
in the middle of the major term and the b. Venn Diagram
minor term. In the above syllogism, the
major term is living things (L), the minor
term is roses (R) and the M is the plants (P).
We will only diagram the premises
and we diagram first the universal. If both
premises are universals, diagram first the
major premise. The conclusion can be seen
in the diagram. If it conforms with the
conclusion, then its valid, if NOT, then its
invalid.
If the conclusion is universal, IT
must not be shaded/removed for it to be c. Boolean Equation
valid. Each flower is beautiful. F˜B=0
If it is a particular, the conclusion Some flowers are grasses. F G≠ 0
must be seen as marked as X. ⸫ all grasses are beautiful. ⸫ G˜B= 0
b. Venn Diagram (3pts) d. invalid
e. Rules violated: If 1 of the premises is
particular, the ⸫ must be particular.

c. Practice Exercises:
Direction: Determine the validity of the
syllogisms by giving the following:
a. Form
b. Draw Venn Diagram
c. Boolean Equation
d. Declare whether valid or invalid
e. give the violated rules of the
Categorical Syllogism
Boolean Equation (3pts)
1. All women are beautiful.
All plants are living things. P ˜L=0 Some men are women.
Roses are plants. R ˜P=0 ⸫ some men are beautiful.
⸫ Roses are living things. ⸫ R ˜L=0
2. Some children are
well-mannered.
Some well-mannered people are
kind.
⸫ some children are not kind.

3. Each resident is generous.

Pete is one of the residents.
⸫ Pete is generous.

4. No Filipino is not hopeful.

Some hopefuls are not diligent.
⸫ some diligent people are
Filipinos.

5. Some visible things are nice.

No visible thing is good.
⸫ some nice things are good.

Questions to PONDER:

1. Can we diagram a syllogism with

an equivocal M?
2. Can we give the Boolean
Equation if the M is equivocal?
3. If the M is equivocal, can it be
considered as a M?
4. What is the most valid and
reliable method of determining
the validity of the Categorical
Syllogism?