REVIEWER IN LOGIC AND CRITICAL Greek Philosophers’ Concept of Human

THINKING Nature).

PHILOSOPHY THEORETICAL FIELD

- Etymologically, philosophy is derived from METAPHYSICS - STUDY OF BEING
two Greek words philia meaning “love” or
ONTOLOGY – STUDY OF BEING AS BEING
“friendship” and Sophia meaning “wisdom”.
Literally, philosophy means love of wisdom. EPISTEMOLOGY – STUDY OF KNOWLEDGE
- The Chinese, however, define philosophy COSMOLOGY – STUDY OF
as Zhe-Xue or Che Shueh (this is originally WORLD/UNIVERSE
coined by Dr. Nishi Amane). The Chinese
PSYCHOLOGY – STUDY OF HUMAN
understand Zhe-Xue or philosophy as the
BEHAVIOR
“study of wisdom”. For the Chinese, Zhe (as
a character) means “wisdom” and Xue (as a THEODICY – STUDY GOD-MAN
character) means study RELATIONSHIP
- For HINDUS , philosophy is a Darsana. PRACTICAL FIELD
Darsana means seeing, seeing not only
SEMANTICS – STUDY OF WORDS AND
through the eyes but through the whole
MEANINGS
being of the one that sees.
AXIOLOGY – STUDY OF VALUES AND ITS
HIERARCHY
The Origin of Philosophy
ETHICS – STUDY OF MORALITY
- “Philosophy begins in Miletus” says
AESTHETICS – STUDY OF ARTS AND BEAUTY
Reginald Ellen
LOGIC – STUDY OF CORRECT REASONING
- Thales wondered earlier than Pythagoras)
It is Thales. This highlights the origin of
philosophy.
The Purpose of Philosophy
- The term philosophy was probably coined
- The pleasure of philosophizing, thinking,
by PYTHAGORAS.
reflecting, analyzing, evaluating, etc. is
The Cause of Philosophy fulfillment or satisfaction alien to a person
who has a narrow interest of reality.
The cause of philosophy – not necessarily
the ultimate cause – is wonder; philosophy - Philosophy will enable us to understand all
starts at wonder. Wonder, however, is things in their ultimate causes, reasons, and
normally expressed in a question. The first principles through human reason alone.
man who questioned or wondered was
Thales (we will discuss the contents of
Thales’ wonder under the heading: The
 CONCEPTS, TERMS AND STRUTURES OF
SIMPLE APPREHENSION
The study of logic basically includes the
three operations of mind which are:
a) Simple apprehension- the mind’s first
awareness of things through which we
form ideas;
b) Judgment- the mind’s act of affirming or
denying one or the other, whereby the
mind establishes the identity or non-
identity of two concepts; and
c) Reasoning – the mind’s combination of
the two judgment with a view of arriving at
a new judgment.
The idea has two important properties:
COMPREHENSION AND EXTENSION.
Comprehension is the sum-total of the
attributes or thought elements which
constitute the idea.
Extension is the sum-total of all the
individuals, things or beings or groups to
which the idea can be replied. It expresses
denotation or the application of the idea to
different individuals or things. It is
manifested by division.
THE PREDICAMENTS refer to the set of
fundamental ideas in terms of which all
other ideas can be expressed. Aristotle
called them categories and enumerated 10
of them.
A. (1) Substance – it is that which its
existence not in another but in and for
itself. It has its own meaning and value in
itself.
Examples: plant, dog, man, chair, table, tree
B. Accident – it refers to everything added
to a substance as a further determination.
There are nine accidents.
1. Quantity – the modification of a
substance as regards the effect of having
extension and divisibility.
Examples: 50 kilos, 25 ft, 100 pesos, 200
sq.m.
2. Quality – formal determination of a
substance which may be a habit,
disposition, capacity or the form and figure
of a thing.
Examples: intelligent, hot, red, figure of
woman
3. Relation – the manner in which
substances refer to each other.
Examples: father, ruler, teacher, husband
4. Action – production of an effect in
another
Examples: running, swimming, walking,
dancing
5. Passion – reception of an effect from
another
Examples: being killed, was shot, are
burned, being accepted
6. Time (when) – situation in time
Examples: at 8 p.m., today, now, last time,
next week
7. Where (place) – position or localization
of the substance in space
Examples: here, in the office, at home,
Manila
8. Posture – determination of the substance
as to the disposition of its parts.
Examples: lying, sitting, standing, stooping

9. Habit – determination of the substances
as to the external appearance or outfit. In
the strict sense, only man is capable of
having a habit; thus, habit, properly
speaking, is exclusive to man.
Examples: in red gown, clothed in black
suit, covered with lace
- The predicaments are also called the first
intentions.
- The predicables are also called second
intentions.
THE PREDICABLES (Lat. Predicabilis, “that
which may be affirmed”) are classifications
of reflex universals based on the five ways
in they express the nature of subjects of
which they are predicated.
1. SPECIES. It expresses the essence of the
subject, by indicating all the basic
constitutive elements and is predicated of
the subject. It gives a complete answer to
the question: What is a thing essentially?
2. GENUS. It expresses only some of the
basic constitutive elements of the essence
of a thing. It gives an incomplete answer to
the question, “What is a thing essentially?
3. SPECIFIC DIFFERENCE. It expresses the
determining constitutive element that
distinguishes the essence of an object from
other essences belonging to the same
genus.
4. LOGICAL PROPERTY. It is a universal that
expresses, not the essence of the subject,
which it is predicated, but an attribute that
accompanies this essence necessarily.
5. LOGICAL ACCIDENT. It is universal that
expresses an attribute that does not belong
to the subject necessarily but only
accidentally.
TERM, SIGN OF THE CONCEPT
Etymologically, term comes from the Latin
word terminus. Literally means “the last
element to which a proposition may be
resolved” namely, the spoken or written
word. But in its real definition, a term is
sensible conventional sign expressive f an
idea; or, the outward expression of an idea
whether oral written.
TERMS ACCORDING TO SIGNIFICANCE OR
MEANING
1. Univocal Terms
Terms are univocal if they express the same
meaning when applied or predicted to
different objects in a given context.
Example: Juanito is man. The pope is man
too.
2. Equivocal Terms
Terms are equivocal if they express two or
more unrelated meanings when applied to
different object in a given context. Terms
may be equivocal in;
a) Pronunciation
Example: son-sun, pain-pane, ate-eight,
suite-sweet
b) Spelling
Example: Mr. Bagsik records the data in the
record book. Its my pleasure to present you
all present here, our honorable guest.
3. Analogous Terms
Terms are analogous if they express a
meaning that is partly the same and partly
different when applied to different objects
in given context. Terms may be analogous
by
a) proportion- that is when term is applied
to unlike objects because of some
resemblance between them.
b) Attribution- that is when the term is
used in an absolute in one thing and then
attributed in another thing because of some
intrinsic relation with the first.
Example: “healthy” could be attributed to
medicine, body, food, as when we say
“healthy body”, “healthy food”.
TERMS ACCORDING TO APPLICATION OR
EXTENSION
The extension of the term is simply the
application of the term to its subject
signified by the term.
1. Universal terms
Terms are said to be universal if it stands for
each of subject to which it can be applied-
that is, if it stands for each of an unlimited
class of subjects.
Example: Every man is a human being.
A term may be universal if we see these
signs of universality:
a) When we see these modifiers such as:
every, all, no one, each, whoever, whatever,
everyone, anything, everything, any,
whichever, without exception.
2. Particular terms
Terms are said to be particular if it applies
to an indeterminately designated portion of
its absolute extension; if it applies to a part
of a given group.
- The use of modifiers such as: some, few,
most, several, plenty, a lot of, a number of,
more, many, certain, etc.
3. Singular terms
Terms are said to be singular if it stands for
one individual or group and designates that
individual or group definitely.
I. COMPATIBLE – terms that can co-exist in
a subject
Examples:
Hot and spicy wise and good
rich and famous
II. INCOMPATIBLE – terms that cannot
coexist in a subject. They exclude each
other.
There are 4 kinds of incompatible ideas:
1. Contradictory – terms that mutually
exclude each other such that the
affirmation of one is the denial of the other.
Between these two terms, there is no third
(middle) ground.
Examples:
Just – unjust legal-illegal
valid-invalid
2. Contrary – terms that express extremes
belonging to the same class. Between these
two terms, there is a third (middle) ground.
Examples:
Rich-poor beautiful-ugly
hot-cold fast-slow
3. Privative – two opposed ideas, one of
which expresses perfection, and the other
its lack which ought to be possessed
Examples:
Truth – error hearing-deafness
good-evil
4. Correlative – two opposed terms that
bear mutual relation to one another such
that one cannot be understood without the
other.
Example:
Cause-effect husband – wife
whole-part parent-child
ACCORDING TO QUALITY
1. Positive in form, positive in meaning
Examples: life, justice, truth, freedom
2. Positive in form, negative in meaning
Examples: death, evil, error, sin, cruelty
3. Negative in form, negative in meaning
Examples: illegal, impolite, incompetent,
dishonest
4. Negative in form, positive in meaning
Examples: immortal, infinite, blameless
Categorical Propositions
is one which gives a direct assertion of
agreement or disagreement between the
subject the predicate terms. It is called
categorical because it directly asserts
something unconditionally.
PROPERTIES OF CATEGORICAL
STATEMENTS
- A proposition is Universal Affirmative
All members of one class are included or
contained in another class.
- E proposition is Universal Negative
No member of a class is included in another
class
- I proposition is Particular Affirmative
Part of a class is included in another class
- O proposition is Particular Negative
Part of one class is not included in another
class
ELEMENTS OF CATEGORICAL
PROPOSITIONS
1. The subject term (S) is that about which
something is affirmed or denied.
2. The predicate term (P) is that which is
affirmed or denied of the subject term.
3. The Copula, usually come form of verb to
be, connects the subject and the predicate
terms. It indicates the quality –affirmation
or negation – of the statement. The verb is
accompanied by the expression NOT in the
O statement to indicate negation.
4. The Quantifier (all, no, some) specifies
the quantity of the statement, whether the
assertion refers to ALL members of the class
or only to some members of the class. N.B.
It is the copula(together with NO in the case
of E) not to the terms, that indicates the
quality of the statement. Indeed, a
statement may have negative terms but
remain affirmative.
LOGICAL STRUCTURE OF CATEGORICAL
STATEMENTS
The reduction to logical structure of a
categorical statement consists in rewording
it in a manner to conform to the S-C-P
Form.
Example: Standard-Categorical-Proposition
Form
Butterflies fly ……… All Butterflies are
flying insects
INTERPRETING STATEMENTS (GUIDELINES)
1. Treat singular statements as universal
statements. Singular affirmative sentences
are to be regarded as A- Statements and
the singular negative as E- statements. The
quantifiers need not be appended to the
statement.
Example: Edison is a Philosophy
graduate….A (no change)
2. Translate general statements as
universal statements.
Example:
Manilenos are Filipinos
S-C-P Form- All Manilenos are Filipinos
3. Change general quantifiers to standard
universal quantifiers. General statements
which begin with the words EVERY, ANY,
EVERYTHING, ANYTHING, ANYONE,
EVERYBODY, WHAT SO EVER, WHOSOEVER,
IF…THEN and the articles A, AN, THE: all
these should be viewed as universal
statements. Change the quantifier into ALL
if the statement is affirmative and NO if the
statement is negative.
Example:
The/Every mayor is a public servant
S-C-P Form
All mayors are public servants
4. Transform plural and numerical
quantifiers into SOME. Statements that
begin with quantifiers MOST, SEVERAL,
MANY, A FEW, NINETY NINE PERCENT, etc.
are particular statements. The quantifiers
must be replaced with SOME…NOT,
depending on whether the original
statement is affirmative or negative.
Example:
Most Chinese are business persons.
S-C-P Form
Some Chinese are business persons.
Special CASE : A FEW and FEW
A statement that begins with A FEW must
be translated into an I or O statement. But,
one that starts with FEW without the article
before it, it must be translated as an O
statement because it asserts that most
people have not or do not affirm such.
5. Replace negative quantifiers with NO.
Sentences are ordinary discourse containing
negative expressions such as NONE,
NOTHING, NO ONE, and NEVER may be
converted into proper logical form by
replacing the quantifiers with NO and
rearranging the original sentence if E – No minors are persons admitted.
necessary.
Exceptive quantifiers such as ALMOST
Example: No one is both mild and radical EVERYONE, NOT QUITE ALL, ALMOST ALL,
S-C-P Form : No mild person is a radical etc. are to be translated into either I or O.
person
Example: Almost every member was
6. Make all terms explicit. Standard present.
categorical statements contain class terms
S-C-P Form Some members were persons
as their subjects and predicates. Thus,
present. (I)
when translating statements from ordinary
language into their categorical statements, S-C-P Form Some members were not
the terms must be made explicit by persons present. (O)
supplying the missing complement.
TABLE OF DISTRIBUTION
Example: Roses are fragrant
S-C-P Form: All Roses are fragrant flowers.
FORM QUANTITY- DISTRIBUTION
QUALITY
7. Transpose exclusive sentences into
A Universal- All S is P
categorical universal statements.
Affirmative
Sentences that begin with ONLY, NONE
E Universal- No S is P
BUT, NONE EXCEPT or contain the word
Negative
ALONE exclusive sentences. The procedure
in converting an exclusive sentence into a
I Particular- Some S is P
strict statement is: Affirmative
O Particular- Some S is not
a) To drop the exclusive quantifier and Negative P
change it to ALL and
b) To reverse the order of the original REASONING AND ARGUMENTS
statement. - Reasoning is a mental act whereby starting
Example: Only players are allowed inside. with several judgments which we relate to
one another, we arrive at a new judgment
S-C-P Form - All persons allowed inside are which necessarily follows from the
players. preceding ones.

8. Substitute standard categorical - While ARGUMENT usually connotes some

syllogisms for exceptive statements. We form or kind of dispute or quarrel between
should never make the mistake of thinking two parties; in LOGIC, it means simply a
that a statement like “All except minors are body of discourse, a series of statements
admitted” refers to the class of minors. It standing in relation to one another.
actually excludes the minors. The statement
may be translated into either ways:
A – All non-minors are persons admitted.
COMPONENTS OF AN ARGUMENT is no such thing as a “valid premise” or a
“true argument”.
It consists of a statement which purports to
establish something; one or more TRUTH is thus the correspondence of a
statements which provide the reasons for proposition or assertion to facts.
assertion.
A. True premises, True conclusion
An argument consists of PREMISES and 1. VALID (sound)
CONCLUSION. Musicians are artists.
The premises provide reasons or the Violinists are musicians;
evidence, while the conclusion asserts a fact
Violinists are artists.
in the argument.
2. INVALID (unsound)
PREMISES usually follow words like: FOR,
SINCE, BECAUSE, IN AS MUCH AS, Fruits are nutritious.
GRANTED THAT, AS SHOWN AS, FOR THE Apples are nutritious;
REASON THAT, IN VIEW OF, AS INDICATED Apples are fruits.
BY, THE FACTS ARE, ASSURING THAT, ON
B. True premises, False conclusions.
THE SUPPOSITION THAT.
3. INVALID (unsound)
The following words and phrases usually
Pianists are musicians.
precede a CONCLUSION: THEREFORE,
Violinists are musicians;
HENCE, SO, CONSEQUENTLY, FOR THIS
Vilonists are pianists.
REASON, THEN, THUS, IN CONCLUSION,
PROVES THAT, IT FOLLOWS THAT, C. False premises, True conclusions
APPARENTLY, IT IS EVIDENT THAT, LEADS
4. VALID (unsound)
TO THE BELIEF THAT, IT MAY DEDUCED
Dogs are artists.
THAT, IMPLIES THAT, INDICATES THAT,
Painters are dogs.
IT MUST BE, etc.
Painters are artists.
TRUTH AND VALIDITY The key concept in
5. INVALID (sound)
the definition of LOGIC is “correct
Musicians are guitarists.
reasoning.” But correctness or validity of
Violinists are guitarists;
reasoning DOES NOT necessarily mean
Violinists are musicians.
truth.
D. False premises, False conclusions
Reasoning is VALID (correct, consistent) if
and when the conclusion is necessarily 6.VALID (unsound)
inferred from the premises. Dogs are birds.
Cats are dogs;
VALIDITY in Logic is a technical term that
Cats are birds.
applies ONLY to the REASONING OF
ARGUMENTS, not to the premises or 7. INVALID (unsound)
conclusion. Hence, propositions are Dogs are birds.
referred to as true or false. Arguments are Cats are birds;
referred to as valid o invalid. In Logic, there Cats are dogs.
FALLACIES 1. A person reasons that what is true of the
whole must also be true of the parts.
The term FALLACY is derived from the Latin
Fallo which means I DECEIVE. It is an 2) The person fails to justify that inference
erroneous or false reasoning which has the with the required degree of evidence. More
appearance of truth. It is an illogical, formally, the "reasoning" follows this sort of
misleading, and deceptive argument; it is an pattern:
error resulting from the violation of any rule
1. The whole, X, has properties A, B, C, etc.
of Logic.
2. Therefore the parts of X have properties
1. FALLACIES OF AMBIGUOUS LANGUAGE
A, B, C, etc
arise from careless as well as incompetent
use and interpretation of language Fallacy of Composition
Ambiguous Language The fallacy of composition is committed
when one takes jointly what should be
In addition to the fallacies of relevance and
taken separately.
presumption we examined in our previous
lessons, there are several patterns of The Complex Question
incorrect reasoning that arise from the
The fallacy of Complex Question plurium
imprecise use of language. An ambiguous
interrogationum is the fallacy of a question
word, phrase, or sentence is one that has
that has an assumption built in, which
two or more distinct meanings
implies something but protects the one
Fallacy of Equivocation asking the question from accusations of
false claims.
An equivocation trades upon the use of an
ambiguous word or phrase in one of its The Fallacy of Accent
meanings in one of the propositions of an
The Fallacy of Accent is one of the
argument but also in another of its
original fallacies described by Aristotle, the
meanings in a second proposition.
first philosopher to systematically
Fallacy of Amphiboly categorize and described logical errors like
this. Accent, however, was more of a fallacy
An amphiboly can occur even when every
in Aristotle's native Greek than it is for
term in an argument is univocal, if the
English-speakers today.
grammatical construction of a sentence
creates its own ambiguity. Accent is the stress placed upon a word in a
sentence or a syllable in a word.
The Fallacy of Division
Committed when a person infers that what
is true of a whole must also be true of its
constituents and justification for that
GOODLUCK CLASSMATES!!! PAPASA TAYO
inference is not provided.
TIWALA LANG!! ✊
There are two main variants of the general - TINE
fallacy of Division