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Syllogism
The word Syllogism is also referred to Logic. Syllogism is an important section of
logical reasoning and hence, a working knowledge of its rules is required on the
part of the candidate. Hence, it can be expressed as the Science of thought as
expressed in language. The questions based on syllogism can be solved by using
Venn diagrams and some rules devised with the help of analytical ability.
With this unique characteristic, this test becomes an instrument of teaching the
candidates to follow the rules and work as per the instructions without an error.
Here, only the basic concept and rules, which have a bearing on reasoning faculty
could alone help. There are some terminology which are used in syllogism.
Proposition
It is also referred to as Premises. It is a sentence which asserts that either a part
of, or the whole of, one sets of objects-the set identified by the subject term in the
sentence expressing that sentence either is included in, or is excluded from,
another set-the set identified by the predicate term in that sentence.
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Types of Proposition
Categorical Proposition There is relationship between the subject and the
predicate without any condition.
Example :
I.
All beams are logs.
II.
No rod is stick.
Hypothetical Proposition: There is relationship between subject and predicate
which is asserted conditionally.
Example :
I.
If it rains he will not come.
II.
If he comes, I will accompany him.
Disjunctive Proposition In a disjunctive proposition the assertion is of alteration.
Example :
I.
II.
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Parts of Proposition
It consists of four parts.
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1. Quantifier: In quantifier the words, all, no and some are used as they
express quantity. All and no are universal quantifiers because they refer to
every object in a certain set. And quantifier some is a particular quantifier
because it refers to at least one existing object in a certain set.
2. Subject: It is the word about which something is said.
3. Predicate: It is the part of proposition which denotes which is affirmed or
denied about the subject.
4. Copula: It is the part of proposition which denotes the relation between the
subject and predicate.
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Take an example : Some boys are not students. In O-type propositions some of
the category represented by boys subject is not students, which means that a
section of boys is denied with the entire category of students. It is, therefore,
deduced that in O-type proposition only predicate is distributed. On account of
different logical approach required to be applied for drawing each type of
inference, a clear understanding of this difference becomes more important.
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2. When premises are in jumbled/mixed form Here at least three or more than
three proposition are given. Here pair of two propositions out of them follow
as same as in specified form.
Type 1 Premises in Specified Forms
Case 1: The conclusion does not contain the middle term Middle term is the term
common to both the premises and is denoted by M. Hence, for such case,
conclusion does not contain any common term belong to both premises.
Example 1
Statement:
Conclusions
I.
II.
I.
II.
Solution. Since, both the conclusions I and II contain the middle term girls so
neither of them can follow.
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By using both representation (a) and (b) it is clear all girls cannot be men as well
as (a) shows some girls are students, here no man is included but at the same
time (b) shows some girls are students have some men are also students as all
men are girls. Hence, we cannot deduce conclusion II.
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Example 2
Statement:
Conclusions
I.
II.
I.
II.
III.
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Solution. Here, the term chair is common to both the statement and hence, is the
middle term. Statement (I) is A type proposition and in A-type proposition, only
subject is distributed, hence, chair being the predicate in the statement (I) is not
distributed in the second statement. Thus, none of the conclusions following
statement is a valid inference.
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(i) All mangoes are table-this inference is definitely false neither (a) nor (b)
shows this conclusion.
(ii) Some tables are mangoes, this inference is uncertain or doubtful.
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Example 3
Statement:
Conclusions
I.
II.
I.
II.
Solution.
Statement I is an I-type proposition which distributes neither the subject nor the
predicate. Statement II is an A type proposition which distributes the subject
students. Conclusion I is an A-type proposition which distributes the subject
teenagers only.
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We have given that all students are teenagers so, its reverse cannot be possible.
Hence, conclusion I is false. As we are also given that some boys are students
and all students are teenagers. So, some boys which are students must be
teenagers. Hence, conclusion II follows.
I.
Some boys are thieves.
All thieves are dacoits.
I.
Some boys are dacoits.
All dacoits are boys.
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Example 5
Statement:
II.
Conclusions
II.
I.
All Lotus are flowers.
No Lily is a Lotus.
I.
No Lily is flowers.
Some Lilies are flowers.
Solution.
Here, the first premise is an A proposition and so, the middle term Lotus forming
the subject is distributed.The second premise is an E proposition and so, the
middle term Lotus forming the predicate is distributed. Since, the middle term is
distributed twice, so the conclusion cannot be universal.
Venn-diagram representation: All possible cases can be drawn as follows
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