LOGIC AND

CRITICAL THINKING
 Introduction to logic
 The nature of logic
 Material and formal logic
 Symbolic and informal logic’
 Division of logic
 Method of logic
HISTORY OF LOGIC
Logos which means speech, word or reason
INTRODUCED BY ZENO THE STOIC logike human thought
ARISTOTLE LAID THE FOUNDATIONOF THE SCIENCE AND ART
Medieval saint Thomas Aquinas
Modern logical positivism
 Logic is defined as the science of correct reasoning
FORMAL LOGIC AND MATERIAL LOGIC
1. Formal logic/Symbolic logic concerns itself primarily with the correctness rather than the
truth of a logical process
2. Material logic – concerned with the truth of the material content
SYMBOLIC LOGIC VS INFORMAL LOGIC
Symbolic logic emphasize precise symbolic representation of the logical concepts, the study
of the abstract relationship between the concept, and the systematization of these
relationship.
Informal or critical thinking – focuses on the application of the logical concepts to the analysis
of everyday reasoning and problem solving.
DIVISION OF LOGIC
1. Simple apprehension - is the act by which the intellect grasp the essence of something
2. Judgement – is a mental operations that pronounces the identity or non-identity between
two ideas.
3. Reasoning – is a mental act that proceeds from the previously known truth to a new truth
 Method of logic
Reflexive knowledge
1. First intention it is a concept or category by which we grasp the nature or essence of
an object according to its own property of being
Example: A dog is a bodily substance
A dog is an irrational animal
A dog is quadruped
2. Second intentions – is a kind of concept which presents the mode or manner by
which the mind understand the nature of reality as a logical reality
Example: A dog is the subject of the conversation
A dog is the inner
A dog is in the middle
 SOUNDNESS AND VALIDITY
Reasoning/inference is a mental act that proceeds from the previously known truth to a new
truth
 Argument is a group of proposition in which one proposition in which one proposition is claim
to be true on the basis on one or more proposition. Examples: Anything that is created has a
cause
But, human beings are created;
Therefore , human beings have a cause.
Immediate inference –compose of one premise only
Example: Every law is evil for every law is infraction of freedom.
Mediate inference – compose of two or more premises
 Premise building blocks of the argument.
 Conclusion is a proposition claim to be true.
 Deductive argument the truth of the premise is supposed to prove the truth of the conclusion
is certain
 Valid/invalid
 Sound/unsound
VALID AND SOUND ARGUMENT
All Italian operatic tenors are great singer
Luciano Pavarotti is an Italian operatic tenor
Luciano Pavarotti is a great singer
Invalid and unsound
Some CMU student are from Potrero
But Fely Estrada and Neil Orbos are CMU student
Fely Estrada and Neil Orbos are from Potrero

 Inductive argument- the truth of the premise is supposed to prove the truth of
the conclusion is probable
 Strong and weak
CHAPTER 1: SIMPLE APPREHENSION

TOPIC TO BE DISCUSSED
 Introduction
 Ideas are formed and its nature
 Essence, and their relationship
 Ideas are formed in the mind
‘There is nothing in the mind without
passing our senses first ‘- Aristotle
 Simple apprehension is the first mental operation wherein grasping the
essence of a thing without affirming or denying anything about it.
 Idea referring to the mental product of simple apprehension
 Term is the verbal manifestation of the idea.
IDEOGENESIS – PERTAINS TO THE INTELLECTUAL
EVOLUTION OF THE IDEA OR CONCEPT

 Essence- is something that makes a thing what it is

 Sense image is a sensible representation of an idea
 Phantasm is the product of imagination
 Accidence- is a set of features physically found in the object itself
 Intellection
 Idea Is the intellectual representation of a thing, a product of simple
apprehension
 Term is a verbal manifestation of an idea
LOGICAL QUALITIES OF THE TERM

1. Comprehension – refers to the group of characteristic essential to a

term, it is also known as intension, signification or comprehension.
2. Denotation – is a set of things which the term refers .It is also known
as extension
Examples: Musicians is a person who plays a musical instrument or is
musically gifted(Connotation)
Beethoven , Mozart, Bach, Cayabyab( denotation
CLASSIFICATION OF TERMS
ACORDING TO COMPREHENSION
1. Concrete it expresses a actual reality that can be perceived
through the senses. Examples: pen , chalk , phone , ring, computer
2. Abstract it expresses something mentally abstracted from concrete
reality. It is a pure idea express in words
Examples: truth, happiness, height , knowledge ,beauty
CLASSIFICATION OF TERMS ACORDING TO
EXTENSION
1. Singular term– is a term that signifies a definite individual or group. It is used to single
out specific individual or group of individuals( demonstrative pronouns , proper nouns,
superlative modifier
2. Particular term is a term whose meaning is applied to only a position of a given group.
( some, most , many, not all, certain, not every, totality, majority , much , few , among
others.
3. Universal term – is on whose meaning or concept is extended or applied to each of all
member in a definitely designated group.
 Explicit universal these are expressly quantified by the use of quantifier like.
ALL,EVERY,NONE,NO ONE,NO,ALL IS NOT,WHATEVER,WHOEVER
 Implicit universal – these are universal term that are not expressly quantified ,but
actually and materially universal in quantity.
Examples: a tree is a plant
studious students are good learners
Drug abuse is destructive to life
CLASSIFICATION OF TERM
ACCORDING TO MEANING
1. Univocal – a term that carries only one meaning in its several use.
2. Equivocal a term that carries different meaning in its different uses
Examples : Marry and merry, Blue and blew: Hill and heal
3. Analogous a term that carries meaning in some ways the same and
some ways different.
 A VERY SHORT QUIZ
A. Indicate whether the term used is UNIVOCAL,EQUIVOCAL,OR ANALOGOUS.
1. Igorot are Filipino: Ilocano’s are Filipino _____________
2. A dog is an animal : A cat is an Animal ______________
3. Gasoline and water are liquid ___________
4. President Tan is head of the family and nation _____________
5. The father is the backbone of the family ________________
6. The electric plant and banana are both plants ____________
7. Christians are the church; the house of prayer is a church ____________
8. A nation is a state; Life is a state of being ________
9. I love you papa; I love you sweethearts _____________
10. There are two footsteps; there are three steps to success _______________
B. Examine and indicate the quantity of terms.Universal,Particular and singular
1. These people ________________
2. Vilma Santos _________________
3. Many animals ________________
4. 1000 Students ________________
5. A dog _________________
6. All the teachers ______________
7. Peter and Paul _______________
8. Pope John Paul II _____________
9. Some of us _________________
10. The most beautiful lady ____________
11. Man is a rational animal ____________
12. A dog is not a protestant ___________
13. Peoples are creature of God __________________
14. No student are ugly _______________
15. Christians are followers of Christ ___________________
TOPICS TO BE DISCUSS
 The nature of definition
 Different kinds of definition
 Rules of a good definition
CHAPTER 2: DEFINITION
 Definition is the conceptual manifestation either of the meaning or of
the formal features of an object.
 Defiendum is the term to be define
 Definiens is the defining term.
Examples: Man is a rational animal
 TYPES OF DEFINITION
1. Nominal definition – explain what the term means, not what the thing is.
1.1 Ostensive or (demonstrative definition) indicates the meaning of the term by showing or
pointing at the objects( from the Latin “ostendere” meaning “to point ” or “to show”
1.2 Synonymous definition – gives the same connotation of the term
Example: Carbohydrates – Saccharides, Mendacious – Lying .Fuhrer - Leader
Snooty – Haughty. Reprise –Repeat. Prima facie – At first sight
1.3 Etymological definition – gives the origin of the word
Examples: Hypothermia (hypo”, below; “Therma”, heat) means low body temperature
Perambulate ( per”, through; “ ambul”,) means to walk through.
reflection ( re”, again;” flex”, to bend) the process of thinking again.
Circumspect (circum”around;”spect”, look) means warry and unwilling to take the
risk.
Altopobia – (“alto”, high; “phobia”, fear) means the fear of height
2. Real definition – tell us what the thig is , not just what
the word means

2.1 Essential definition – it is definition that is constructed by genus and specific

differences
Examples: Man is a rational animal
Snake is a scaly, legless , sometimes venomuous reptile having a long, tapering,
cylindrical body and found in most tropical and temperate regions.
Decagon is a ten sides polygon
2.2 Non essential gives the more notable characteristic of a thing
2.2.1 distinctive definition – (definition by property) gives the natural characteristic of thing that
follows from the essence of the thing . Examples
Man is capable of distinguishing what is morally right and morally wrong.
Oxygen is a gas 1.105 times heavier as air
A triangle has the interior angles equals to two right angels
2.2.2 Genetic definition – Furnishes the mode of origin of a thing. It describe how something is
produced. Examples:
Caesarian section – is an operation for delivering a child by cutting the wall of abdomen.
Circle is a figure formed by revolving a line in plane reaching one of its ends.
Tsunami is a long high se wave caused by underwater earthquake
Hiccup is an involuntary spasm of the diaphragm and respiratory organs , with a sudden closure
Of the glottis and a characteristic sound like that of a cough
2.2.3 Causal definition – describes a thing by its efficient and final cause
1. Definition by efficient cause – gives the producer of a thing examples:
Al Qaida is an international terrorist organization created by Osama Bin Laden.
Webpage – is a virtual page made by webmaster.
Les Miserables is an 1862 novel by Victor Hugo
Inferiority complex is a concept introduced by Alfred Adler, an Austrian physicist.
2. Definition by final cause – gives the purpose or end on account of which a thing is
produced. Examples:
Spacecraft is a vehicle used in travelling in space
Weapon is designed to inflict bodily harm or physical damage to something or
someone.
Sedative is a drug for inducing sleep.
2.2.4 Definition by final cause – explain a thing by giving characteristic that are contingently
connected with it.
The typhoon is tremendously strong: Judas Iscariot hanged himself: The sitcom is hilarious
 RULES OF A GOOD DEFINITION
1. A DEFINITION SHOULD AVOID VAGUENESS AND AMBIGUITY – A highly theoretical definition
and figurative language must be avoided
OBSCURE DEFINITION
Net is the reticulated fabric decussated at regular intervals with interstices and intersections-
Samuel Johnson
Inquiry is the controlled or directed transformation of an indeterminate situation into one that
is so determinate in its constituent distinction and relations as to convert the elements of the
original situation into a unified whole’(John Dewey.
Blush – is a temporary erythema and calorific effulgence of the physiogamy, aetiorized by
the perceptiveness of the sensorium in a predicament of inequality from a sense of shame,
anger or other cause, eventuating in a paresis of the vaso-motorial, muscular filaments of the
facial capillaries, whereby being divested of their elasticity, they become suffused with
radiance from an intimidated precordia.
 FIGURATIVE DEFINITIONS
Love is a sweet misery
Marriage is a pair of shears, so joined that they cannot be separated, often moving in
opposite directions, yet always punishing anyone who comes between them(Sydney
Smith)
Bachelor is a man happier than others
Patriotism is the conviction that your country is superior to all other because you were born
in it
Peace is a period of cheating between two periods of fighting
Lawyer is someone who makes crime pay
Intellectuals are people who solves problems; genius prevent them
Meeting is an event where minutes are taken and our is wasted
2. DEFINITION SHOULD NOT BE CIRCULAR
Examples: An inventor is one invents something.
A wall clock is a clock on the wall.
An eyebrow is the brow of the eye.
3.DIFINITION SHOULD NOT BE NEEDLESSLY NEGATIVE.
Examples: Odd is not even
Antonym is the opposite of synonyms.
Adolescent is neither a child nor an adult
Antipathy is the antonym of sympathy
4. THE DEFINITION MUST BE PRECISE I.E IT MUST NOT BE TOO NARROW OR TOO BROAD.
Examples: E-mail is a message sent electronically
A square is four-sided polygon
A cat is a domestic animals
Knife is an instrument for cutting
Jupiter is a planet
 DEFINITION THAT ARE TOO NARROW
 A woman is married mother
 A doctor is surgeon
 A bird is feathered egg-laying animal
 Fire cracker is a high-powered explosive firework
 A very short quiz
A. DIRECTION: Determine the kind of definition used in the following examples.
1. Synonymous 4. Ostensive 7. Final Cause
2. Etymological 5. Genetic 8. Efficient Cause
3. Essential 6. Distinctive 9. Accidental
__________ 1. Camera: a device that is used for taking photos
__________ 2.To panic is to be alarmed
__________ 3.Ubuntu:a Nguni Bantu (from South Africa) term roughly translating to “human
kindness”
__________ 4.Paraluman: a muse that inspires artistically
__________ 5.Synygy: an alignment of celestial bodies
__________ 6.Hydrogen peroxide): oxidizing and bleaching agent
__________ 7.Aurora: dawn
__________ 8.Eat Bulaga: has been on air for 30 years
__________ 9.Washing machine: equipment used for washing clothes
______ 10. Suicide is intentionally killing of oneself.
B. Directions: Criticize the following definitions in the light of the rules of definition discussed
1. Obscure 3. Circular 5. Too broad
2. Figurative 4. Negative 6. too narrow
________ 1. Towel a piece of cloth for drying hands.
________ 2. Pacquiao pambansang kamao.
________ 3. Dictionary a reference book.
________ 4. Face mask a mask for the face.
________ 5. Soccer: a sport using ball.
________ 6. New year: A holiday.
________ 7. Passport: a documents that allows someone to travel in a foreign country.
________ 8. Terrorist: Al Qaida.
________ 9. Carpenter: someone who innovates.
________ 10. Innovator: someone who innovates
C. Given here is the definiens. You are asked to give the defiendum. CLUE: The answer to
each item starts with the word FACE.
________ 1. A battle or competition.
________ 2. Surgery to make a person’s look younger by removing some imperfection typically
of aging.
________ 3. Personally
CLUE: The answer to each items starts with the word OPEN.
________ 4. A public meeting place for open discussion.
________ 5. Something that many people know about but that is supposed to be confidential.
________ 6. Something that allows the person to enter successfully and easily, like in game.
CLUE: The answer to each items start with the word BLACK.
________ 7. A disgrace in the family.
________ 8. Involves an invocation of evil spirits for evil purposes.
________ 9. A wide opening on the skin with a blackened mass of skin debris covering the
opening.
________ 10. Demanding money from a person in return for not revealing injurious information
about that person.
CHAPTER 3: CATEGORICAL PROPOSITION
 TOPICS TO BE DISCUSS
1. Nature of judgment.
2. Nature and elements of propositions.
3. Standard translation to categorical proposition.
4. Four standard categorical proposition.
5. Distribution of subject and predicate term.
6. Boolean equation and Venn diagram.
 Judgment is a mental process that pronounces the agreement and disagreement
between two ideas
 Ideas is neither true or false
 Example: “ A square is a polygon”
“ A table is not a chair”
 It is not the mind that dictates what reality should be ; rather. it is reality that dictates
what the mind should think”.
 ELEMENTS OF PROPOSITION
 Proposition is linguistic expression or the sensible sign of the judgement
 Proposition and sentence
ELEMENTS OF PROPOSITION
1. Subject – is the term about which something is affirmed or denied
Example “Man is a thinker
“ A dog is not a stone”
2. Predicate term – is the term which is either affirmed or denied of the subject term
3. Copula – that which express affirmation or denial in the proposition is called the copula
 Translation to Standard Categorical Propositions
 Non-Standard Form Categorical Propositions
1. Love knows no bounds.
2. Hurting words kill.
3. Money changes everything.
4. Only those who registered can vote.
5. Birds of the same feathers flock together.
6. No trespassing.
7. If you sow, you reap
8. No pain ,no gain
 STANDARD-FORM CATEGORICAL PROPOSITIONS
1. Love is something that knows no bounds.
2. Hurting words are those that kill.
3. Money is something that changes everything
4. All person who registered are those who can vote.
5. Birds of the same feather are those that flock together
6. This is a place ones cannot trespass
7. All those who sow are those person who’ll reap
8. All person who experience pain are those who gain.
 Categorical proposition is that which gives a direct assertion of agreement or
disagreement between the subject term and the predicate term.
QUALITY OF THE CATEGORICAL PROPOSITION is the relation established between the two
terms of the proposition
Examples:
1. All deep- thinkers are philosophers
2. Some capitalist are greedy
3. An angels is not a devil
4. Some films are not well crafted
5. The students is irresponsible
6. Unmark ballots are invalid
7. That the accused is not guilt is uncertain
QUANTITY OF THE CATEGORICAL PROPOSITION
1. Universal proposition – is one whose subject term stands for each and all individuals to
which it is applied.
2. Particular proposition is a kind of proposition whose subject stands for a portion of a
given totality.
FOUR STANDARD CATEGORICAL PROPOSITION
1. A – UNIVERSAL /SINGULAR AFFIRMATIVE PROPOSITION
“ All leaders are servant”
2. E – UNIVERSAL / SINGULAR NEGATIVE PROPOSITION
“No leader are servant”
3. I – PARTICULAR AFFIRMATIVE
“Some leaders are servant”
4. O- PARTICULAR NEGATIVE
“ Some leaders are not servant
DISTRIBUTION OF TERMS – express the way in which terms can occur in a categorical
proposition . A term is distributed it refers to all member of the class designated by the
term ; otherwise ,it is undistributed
A – All roses are flowers- All Su + Pp SP = 0
E – No chairs are tables – No Su – Pu SP = 0
I – Some artist are painters – Some Sp + Pp SP ≠ 0
O – Some lawyers are not liars Some Sp – Pu SP ≠ 0
 LOGICAL OPPOSITION OF
PROPOSITION
 Logical opposition of proposition refers to the different realation
that exist between proposition having the same subject and
predicate term but differing in quantity or quality or both
 Traditional square of opposition refers to the schematic
representation of the four standard categorical proposition
 Types of logical opposition
1. Contradiction – a relation that exist between propositions that
differs in quantity and quality .(A-O and E – I)
Laws of contradiction
 If one is true the other is false
 If one is false the other is true
2. Contraiety a relation that exist between universal proposition that differs in quality
only. (A-E)
Laws of contriety
 If one is true, the other is false.(contraries cannot be both true)
 If one is false, the other is doubtful i.e., either true of false.(contraries ma be both false)
3. Subcontrary a relation that exist between particular propositions tat differ in quality
only. (I-O propositions are subcontraries)
Laws of subcontriety
 If one is false the other is true ( Subcontraries cannot be both false)
 If one is true the othe is doubtful ( Subcontraries maybe both true)
4. Subaltern is a relation that exist between two proposition having the same quality
but differing in quantity( A-I and E- O)
 If the universal is true the particular is also true
 If the universal is false, the particular is doubtful
 If the particular is false, the universal is false
 If the particular is true, the universal is doubtful