Philosophy Prelim
Lesson 1
Philosophy
-Etymologically speaking, the term PHILOSOPHY
came from two Greek words: Philos (LOVE) and Sophia
(WISDOM). Thus, philosophy is defined as the “love of
wisdom.”
Pythagoras
-he discover the philosophy and he is the first person use
the term “PHILOSOPHER”
Manly P. Hall, a Freemasonic philosopher, wrote in his
book, THE SECRET TEACHING OF ALL AGES
(1928)
I am not a Sophos, wise: but Philo-Sophos, a lover of
wisdom; and my followers shall call Philosophers.
LOVER OF WISDOM VS RECEIVER OF
KNOWLEDGE
-For philosophers, they aim to be wise in almost all
aspects of human discipline, inquiring and investigating
all forms of human phenomena.
-Their wisdom stood the test of time and was even
immortalized that up to this day, they become the basis
of the people’s judgments and decisions.
-Over the years, philosophy went beyond its
etymological definition. It became a discipline and a
field of study that desires to understand and comprehend
the mysteries of reality, unveil the nature of truth, and
examine the significance of life.
-It also encompasses the examination of the relationship
between a person and his/her environment and between
the individual person and his/her society.
NATURE AND FUNCTIONS OF
PHILOSOPHY
Some philosophers may not always agree when it comes
to the true nature and function of philosophy, there are
three general statements that attempt to explain what
philosophy is all about.
1. Philosophy integrates itself with other
disciplines to achieve a comprehensive and
coherent worldview.
-For example, most people’s concept of humans is
not only limited to the kind of society, culture, or
tradition that they have now.
-For a consistent and coherent worldview of humans,
one must consider the various disciplines and sciences
that affect a person’s existence in the world.
2. Philosophy analyzes the very foundations of
other disciplines.
-For example, philosophers do not ask if the
conduct or the administration of euthanasia is correct.
- Instead, they question the morality of the act and
the ethical standard on which such an act was based.
3. Philosophy analyzes and criticizes treasured
beliefs and traditions.
- Philosophy is always on the outlook of putting
things to their proper perspectives. It always has this gift
of logical consistency that forces one to see the
importance of one’s beliefs, attitudes, and traditions.
Lesson 3
CORE BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY
 Metaphysics
 Epistemology
 Ethics
 Aesthetics
Metaphysics
-Derived from the Greek word metaphysika (beyond
physics), this branch of philosophy deals with the true
nature of reality.
-Metaphysics seeks to answer the question “What is?”
and encompasses everything that exist, as well as the
true nature of existence itself.
-It also answer the question, “Is the world real, or
merely an illusion?”
-Metaphysics is considered as the science of ultimate
reality as it seeks to present what is absolutely real in
contrast to what is perceived by the naked eyes; hence, it
aims to draw the demarcation line between appearance
and reality.
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 Philosophy Prelim
Metaphysics usually investigates answers to the
following questions :
 What is the nature of reality?
 How did the world come to be?
 What is the first principle (or origin) from which all
things came to be?
 Does the world exist outside of the mind?
 How can the incorporeal mind affect the physical
body?
 Does God exist?
 What does it mean to be a person?
 Do human beings have souls?
 Is there an afterlife?
 Do human beings have will?
 Does time exist, or is it just an illusion?
 Did the universe ever have a beginning?
 Is time infinite?
Epistemology
-This branch of philosophy deals with the study of the
nature and scope of knowledge and justified beliefs.
Derived from two Greek words episteme (knowledge)
and logos (to study).
-2 SIGNIFICANT DOMAINS:
 Rationalism
 Empiricism
Rationalism
-views reason as the chief source of knowledge and the
most important element in the acquisition of knowledge.
-A popular proponent of this view was RENE
DESCARTES who was well-known for the quote
“Cogito, ergo sum – I think, therefor I am.” He
contended that a person was born with innate a prior or
theoretical knowledge and could deduce truths through
mental reasoning.
Empiricism
-asserts that all of a person’s knowledge comes from
his/her five senses.
-The chief proponent of this view was John Locke who
conceived the concept of mind being a tabula rasa
(empty tablet/blank sheet) upon which one could write
and store his/her ideas based on experiences and learn
out of those experiences.
-Locke also provided two forms of experience where a
person could acquire knowledge:
 Sensation
 Reflection
-Epistemologists explore questions such as the
following.
 What is knowledge?
 How does a person acquire knowledge?
 How much can a person possibly know?
 Is an object of knowledge a by-product of the
mind?
 Does the world exist independently from the way
people see it?
Sensation
-a kind of experience where the human mind grasps the
world outside through the five senses.
Reflection
-a kind of experience where the human mind goes
internal, recognizing the ideas regarding its own essence
– thinking, doubting and believing.
Ethics
-Also called MORAL PHILOSOPHY, ethics came from
the Greek words “ethos” which means “custom” or
“habit”. As a branch of philosophy, it is a discipline
which aims to synthesize the concepts of right and
wrong behavior.
-3 DOMAINS OF ETHICS
 Metaethics
 Normative Ethics
 Applied Ethics
Metaethics
it deals with the origin and meaning of ethical concepts.
Its responds to questions focusing on the meaning of
ethical terms such as “good” and “bad” issue on the
universally accepted truths, and even people’s
justifications of their own judgement.
Normative Ethics
-is that part of moral philosophy concerned with the
setting of certain standards of what is morally right and
morally wrong. It involves the formulation of set values
or moral norms which have an impact as to what should
be the people’s action and ways of life.
Applied Ethics
-is the domain of moral philosophy that attempts to
apply theories to situation in real life. It involves
examining controversial issues such as abortion,
euthanasia, infanticide, environmental concerns and
even animal right. The solutions to these problems are
being used in the formulation of public policy.
Aesthetics
-This is the branch of philosophy that deals with the
nature and appreciation of act, beauty and good taste.
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 Philosophy Prelim
-It is derived from the Greek word AESTHETIKOS
which means “of sense perception”,
aesthetics(sometimes also spelled as esthetics),
encompasses all the responses people may solicit from
all forms of art, be it negative or positive.
-Human judgement of aesthetic value is not only
anchored in one’s ability to criticize and appreciate art
using sense perception.
-One judgement on what is beautiful transcends beyond
sensory level, and includes both emotional and
intellectual aspects.
-This means that there were things beautiful and
pleasing to everyone’s eyes. And there was also an
aspect in the interpretation of art which was anchored
upon the individual’s taste.
LESSON 4
DEVELOPMENT OF PHILOSOPHY
 PRE-SOCRATIC PHILOSOPHY
 CLASSICAL PHILOSOPHY
Pre-Socratic Philosophy
-THE IONIANS
The birthplace of philosophy was belived to be in
MILETUS, a province of Ionia which is a Greek colony
in Asia Minor.
-The Ionian philosophers were the first to employ a
rational explanation on the origin of the world and other
physical phenomena, divorcing from the realm of
mythology and fables as means to explain the origin of
the things
-The Ionians established a more naturalistic explanation
on the origin of things. It was this Ionian’s rational
approach to reality that earned them the title
“PHILOSOPHERS”.
-Well known philosophers of this period were Thales,
Anaximander, Anaximenes and Heraclitus.
Thales
-contended that the COSMOS (universe) was made up
of water, and firmly believed that it was the principle
from which all things came to be.
Anaximander
-He believed that the first principle of things was
APEIRON or infinite and limitless.
Anaximenes
-He believed that air was the first principle of things.
Heraclitus
-He believed that fire was the first principle. And he
affirmed that everything was in a constant flux and
becoming was the only thing that remain constant.
Classical Philosophy
-Philosophy took its greatest flight during the time of the
three great Greek triumvirate, namely:
 Socrates
 Plato
 Aristotle
Socrates
-Socrates was one of the greatest philosopher who wrote
nothing. Much of what the world knew about him and
his philosophy were all reconstructions from the
different accounts of people who had personal
affiliations with him.
-Socrates focused more on the cultivation of the soul.
Perhaps, it is but fitting to recognize him as the first
major philosopher of ethics.
-He introduced a system of critical thinking and
reasoning to draw the line between right and wrong,
between moral and evil.
-Socrates attempted to institute a system of ethical
standards primarily based from human reason and not
from religious doctrines.
-He contented that one’s choices were inspired by
his/her desire for happiness.
-According to him, the highest possible wisdom came
from the mastery of the self or from fully knowing
oneself, and that the more knowledgeable and wiser
person becomes the closer he/she is true and genuine
happiness.
-Because of his deviant way of teaching, Socrates was
accused of polluting the minds of the youth and was
sentenced to death by poison.
-“True Knowledge Exist in knowing that you know
nothing.”
Plato
-Plato was Socrates’ best students and perhaps the most
popular and highly influential philosopher of all time.
-Plato’s philosophy was highlighted by his claims of the
existence of greater realm of reality apart from the
human’s own physical word, perceived by the senses
were mere representations of the pure ideal forms
existing elsewhere.
-This was also known as PLATONIC REALISM. He
claimed that the road towards the true life of the soul
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was a path of purification, where man should exert effort
to reach genuine wisdom.
-Plato’s political philosophy was encapsulated in his
political treatise known as THE REPUBLIC, where he
believed that an ideal society must be composed of
workers and warriors rules by a philosopher-king.
Aristotle
-Aristotle was Plato’s student, he was more of an
empiricist compared to Plato and Socrates and was
known for criticizing Plato’s theory of forms.
-Aristotle was known as the “Father of Logic” as he was
the first formalize a system of reasoning
-He contended that the validity of one’s judgement
could be determined, not necessarily by its content, but
by its structure.
-He called this argument SYLLOGISM. He also
popularized the doctrine of the GOLDEN MEAN or a
life of moderation.
-Aristotle viewed ethics as instrument to humans’ quest
for the highest good and happiness.
LESSON 5
VALUE OF PHILOSOPHY
-Philosophy may not be able to give all the certainties
that people seek in the world of uncertainty. But in their
pursuit for what is true, people are developed in a highly
quantitative aspect.
-Philosophy enables every person who pursues it to
think outside of the customary and challenges the reason
of any law imposed by his/her society.
DETERMINING THE TRUTHS
TRUTH is the central in the study of philosophy. A
person’s quest for truth is the reason why philosophy
exist.
Fact
-is a piece of information having objective reality which
is acknowledged by the greater whole.
Truth
-is a proposition believed to be the absolute reality.
Opinion
-is a judgement based on personal convictions, which
may or may not be factual, truthful or false.
THEORIES OF TRUTH
 Correspondence Theory
 Coherence Theory
 Pragmatic Theory
Correspondenee Theory
-The correspondence theory is an ancient concept that
dates back even to the time of PLATO.
-It is the most popular theory which states that the truth
of a proposition is determined by its relationship
(correspondence) to the way things actually are in the
world(reality).
-Hence, for this realist theory, a proposition is true if,
and only if, what it contends relates to what is real.
-Truth, therefore, corresponds to fact; hence, truth is
absolute.
-EXAMPLE
 “Birds can fly”
 “Cats can bark”
-The term correspondence theory was coined by the
analytic language philosophers Bertrand Russell and
Ludwig Wittgenstein.
Coherence Theory
-The coherence theory of truth contends that a
proposition is true if it is consistent with a system of
other propositions considered true.
-This idealist theory of truth puts premium to the culture
of a person and his/her set of beliefs as imposed by the
society.
-There is a possibility of different “TRUTHS” from
different perspectives.
-EXAMPLE
 “Pigs are unclean animals”
-This theory which was originally developed by Georg
Wilhelm, Friedrich Hegel and Baruch Spinoza describes
how one’s interpretation of truth actually works.
-A belief is true if one could incorporate it, through a
consistent and rational manner, into a bigger and more
complex system of beliefs.
Pragmatic Theory
-The Pragmatic theory holds that a proposition is true if
it is useful. Pragmatics linked the nature of truth with the
principle of action and the concept of utility.
-This theory also contends that judgement must be
continually verified and validated by having close
encounter and interaction with the world.
-Suffice it to say that a belief can be considered true if it
is proven to have practical use in the life of individual.
-EXAMPLE
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 Philosophy Prelim
 “The power of prayer is said to be true as it is
needed for one’s salvation.”
Appeal to Tradition
-Trying to get someone to accept something because it
LESSON 6 has been done or believed for a long time.
-“We have been doing this since time immemorial,
therefore this is the right thing to do.”
FALLACIES

Aside from the truth theories presented, there are other Begging the Question
means by which a person can determine the truth. -Assuming the thing that you are trying to prove is true.
-One is by looking into the error in -“I am pretty because my mom said I am pretty and I
reasoning(judgement). believe her.”

Fallacies Fallacy of Composition

-Are arguments somehow could sound convincing and -Assuming that what is true of the part is true to the
very persuasive in order to shape other opinion and whole
deliver flawed judgement and reason -“Hydrogen is air. Oxygen is air. Therefore, H2O is air.”

DIFFERENT TYPES OF FALLACIES

 Ad Hominem
Fallacy of Division
-Assuming that what is true of the whole is true for the
 Appeal to Force
parts
 Appeal to Pity
-“Their entire family is family of beauty queens. I’m
 Appeal to Popular Opinion sure she will be a beauty queen too.”
 Appeal to Tradition
 Begging the Question
 Fallacy of Composition Fallacy of Equivocation
 Fallacy of Division -Using the same term in an argument in different places
 Fallacy of Equivocation but the word has different meanings
-“Her grandmother loves to eat apples but she is the
Ad Hominem apple of the eye of her grandmother. I’m sure her
grandmother will have a hard time eating her.”
-Attacking the individual person instead of the argument
-“You are irritatingly ugly, that is why you cannot be Quiz quests
promoted.”
1. “I suggest that you rethink your opposition to the art
display – that is unless you want to be known as closed-
Appeal to Force minded, born-again Neanderthal.” - APPEAL TO
FORCE
-Telling the hearer that something bad will happen to
him/her if he/she does not accept the argument
-“You have to pass this text message to 10 people or else 2. “Jake likes hunting because his family has always
you will receive bad luck.” hunted. Knowing this, who can take this position
seriously?” - FALLACY OF EQUIVOCATION

Appeal to Pity
-Urging the hearer to accept the argument based upon an
appeal to emoticons, sympathy, etc.
-“I cannot take the exam. You have to consider, my dog
just died.”
Appeal to Popular Opinion
-Urging the hearer to accept a position because majority
of the people hold it.
-“Everybody wants him/her to be president, we should
support him/her too.”
3. I know we don't love each other. But if we don't get
married it will crush my mother. You know she has a
weak heart. Do you really want to do that to her? -
APPEAL TO PITY
4. All my friends are doing a low carb diet. It must be
the only way to lose weight.
5. It might be against the law to drink when you are 18
years old, but everyone does it, so it's okay.

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 Philosophy Prelim
6. “You’re inconsistent. Therefore, you are not a
credible person, and what you’re saying can’t be trusted
and is therefore false.”
7. “If you don’t clean up your room you cannot go out
and play.”
8. “Paul is the smartest student in our school. Since he is
in my class, I must be in the smartest class.”
9. “I deserve a raise in salary for the coming year. After
all, you know how friendly I am with your wife, and I'm
sure you wouldn't want her to find out what's been going
on between you and that sexpot client of yours.”
10. I really deserve an “A” on this paper, professor. Not
only did I study during my grandmother’s funeral, but I
also passed up the heart transplant surgery, even though
that was the first matching donor in 3 years.
LESSON 7
THE HUMAN PERSON AS AN EMBODIED
SPIRIT
Over the course of time, various thinkers have given
people theories and explanations on the true nature of
humans which led them to conclusion that there is
something in them that transcends beyond their
morality.
-They say that there is an “inner self” in every human
that gives him/her that sense discernment: one that gives
him/her the power of will and intellect. This had led
them to conclude that a person is an embodied spirit – a
being possessed with a soul.
NOTION OF THE SOUL
 Pre- Socratic Thought
 Socratic Dualism
 Plato’s Dualism
 Aristotle’s view on the soul
 St. Thomas Aquinas and the Nature of Soul
Pre-Socratic Thought
-Even before the human person became the central
theme in the study of philosophy, the thinkers of the past
have already conceived the idea of the soul as an
integral part of a person.
 Heraclitus
 Prthagoreans
Heraclitus
-The father of universal change, believed in the
existence of the soul as an infinite part of a human
being. He believed that the soul is associated with fire
and there is a something in store for the soul the moment
it leaves the body.
Pythagoreans
-The philosophers who believed that numbers are the
first principle, contending that a human being is a
composite of body and soul. According to them, the soul
existed before it was jailed inside the body as a
punishment.
-This particular belief became the driving force of the
Pythagoreans to work for the purification of the soul to
liberate it from being jailed inside the body.
Socratic Dualism
-Socrates believed that human nature is determined by
one’s soul. This principle is the focal point of Socrates
philosophy, viewing the soul as the center of moral life.
-According to Socrates, knowledge paves the way for
the perfection of the soul and enables a person to
achieve the highest form of happiness.
-These are the reasons why he advocated activities
which are considered food for the soul, something where
knowledge could be derived.
-Since he identified knowledge with virtue, Socrates
believed that knowledge is the mainspring of all virtue.
-Socrates also advocated the concepts of self-mastery,
which puts premium to the soul over the body. Self-
mastery implies mastery of reason over the sensible
nature of a person.
-his notion of self-mastery gives a person a sense of
freedom that leads to a degree of happiness he/she is
destined to experience.
-Also closely associated to his concept of the soul is
Socrates notion of a DAIMONION or divine voice
inside one’s being that is claimed to be guiding his/her
actions.
Plato’s Dualism
-Like his master Socrates, Plato also believed in the idea
that a person is his/her soul. He argued that the soul did
not come into existence with the body and it came to be
prior to being joined in the body.
-as the body dies, the soul survives; hence, for Plato, the
soul goes through a cycle of reincarnation or
transmigration.
-The most important concept in understanding Plato’s
dualism is his theory which claims that everything that
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 Philosophy Prelim
exists has a corresponding “form” or idea. For Plato, the
soul is able to obtain knowledge through remembrance
of these forms.
-Plato expresses the irreconcilable nature of the body
and soul. He described that the body is the prison of the
soul and that one must work harder to reach genuine
wisdom to purify the soul.
Aristotl’e’s view on the soul
-Aristotle’s view on the soul is taken from his
hylomorphic doctrines of reality, which bank on the idea
that everything is composed of matter and form.
According to Aquinas, humans posses all three kinds of
soul. Aquinas contended that the rational/intellectual
soul is the highest form of soul as it enables a person to
engage in highest cognitive functions which transcend
beyond the ability to retained ideas through sensory
perception.
-Such soul gives him/her the power to be self-aware, to
be able to gain the knowledge of universals, and the
power to be independent from the body – a soul that
transcends beyond the corporeal qualities of a human.
-He also believed that through the soul may work
independently of the body, it (soul) still need the body to
manifest power.
-Without the body, the soul is incomplete substance as it
cannot exercise its natural qualities. Thus the rational
soul can exist without the body, but it cannot do
anything without it.

-For Aristotle, the soul is part of the body that animates

it-meaning, the soul is what gives life to the body.
Hence, the body and the soul are inseparable.
-Aristotle assumed that every soul has only one body.
As the body is corrupted, so does the soul. The soul does
not survive death; hence, Aristotle dismisses the concept
of transmigration or reincarnation of the soul.
-Aristotle also claimed that the soul is not a substance,
but a form that actualizes matter into a composite being.
This actualized being becomes the substance known as
the EMBODIED SOUL.

St. Thomas Aquinas and the

Nature of Soul
-THREE DIVISIONS OF THE SOUL
 Vegetative
 Sensitive
 Rational

The Vegetative Soul

-This soul is intrinsically dependent upon matter (food,
home, etc.) to survive.

The Sensitive Soul

-his soul is inherent to all animals and used for sensation
and locomotion.

The Rational or Intellectual

Soul
-This soul is specific and exclusive only to a human.
-Such soul is responsible for thinking and reasoning.