Lesson 1 science of proportion; metaphysics, or the science of being as such; logic, or the science of
TOPIC: INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY correct inferential thinking; and ethics, or the science of morality). Thus, there is no
DURATION: 1 WEEK
TO DO LIST
 Reading
 Course Content and Lecture in Module 1 (page 1-7)
 Take Activity 1
COURSE CONTENT
There was a time in the history of education, where being educated meant having
gone through just a handful of subjects, among which are music, mathematics, rhetoric, and
philosophy, with philosophy occupying a certain preimminence. That time was Medieval
Europe, a faraway place in the faraway past. Many changes had occurred since. At present,
being educated means having gone through the ever-growing literature of an ever
narrowing discipline, and philosophy is longer considered preimminent - in fact, far from it.
While some students expect to glean exotic knowledge about the nature of the subject,
others are disgusted at the thought of its endless debates (Demetrio, 1997). Taking a course
in philosophy is indeed a little bit different from taking other courses from the languages,
mathematics or the natural and social sciences. The aim of this chapter is to discuss briefly,
meaningful aspects and issues of philosophy.
Definition of Philosophy
When humanity began trying to explain the nature and origin of the universe
through reasoning and observation, instead of through poetry and mythology, it is said that
humanity was taking the first step in the development of philosophy. Etymologically, the
word "philosophy" comes from two Greek words, philo, meaning "to love," and sophia,
meaning "wisdom." Thus, philosophy originally meant, "love of wisdom," and in a broad
sense, wisdom is still the goal of philosophy. This "love of wisdom is something in which all
human nature in some measure at least participates and which predisposes all toward
sympathy for the philosopher s enterprises (Scott, et al., 1993). With this meaning, we
realize that there is nothing disgusting with philosophy. It is not about rummaging through
musty manuscripts of great dead men (though this is a part of "philosophizing"). Rather,
philosophy emphasizes our living desire to understand the world that surrounds us and the
world within us (Demetrio, 1997).
The proceeding discussions will have their present purpose if they make clear the
point that "philosophers" are not strange human beings, with interests and ambitions alien
to the rest of humankind. Rather, one is a "philosopher" precisely because one possesses
and cherishes above the rest of humankind that "love of wisdom" which is a part of all
human nature and because one more reflectively and critically brings to light and examines
the largest and widest implications of the life of all human beings.
The ancient philosophers understood the term philosophy as the sum total of the
main branches of scientific study (physics, or the study of nature; mathematics, or the
distinction between philosophy and science, for the entire body of these sciences
constitutes what we call philosophy.
Philosophy is also defined as the science that by natural light of reason studies the
first causes or highest principles of all things. Under this definition, four things are to be
considered:
1. Science - It is called science because the investigation is systematic. It follows
certain steps or it employs certain procedures. In other words, it is an organized
body of knowledge just like any other science.
2. Natural Light of Reason - Philosophy investigates things, not by using any other
laboratory instrument or investigative tools, neither on the basis of supernatural
revelation, otherwise it becomes theology instead the philosopher uses his natural
capacity to think, or simply human reason alone, or the so-called unaided reason.
3. Study of All Things - This sets the distinction between philosophy from other
sciences. All other sciences concern themselves with a particular object of
investigation. For example, anthropologists study human beings in relation with
the society; sociologists study society, its form, structures, and functions; botanists
focus their attention to plants; linguists limit themselves with language;
theologians investigate God; whereas, a philosopher studies human beings,
society, religion, language, God, plants, and many more. In short, a philosopher
does not limit himself to a particular object of inquiry. He questions almost
anything, if not everything.
4. First Cause or Highest Principle - A principle is that from which something
proceeds in any manner whatsoever.
4.1. The First Principles
a) Principle of Identity - states that, whatever is, is; and whatever is not,
is not; everything is what it is. Everything is its own being, and not
being is not being
b) Principle of Noncontradiction - states that it is impossible for a thing
to be and not to be at the same time,and at the same respect.
c) Principle of Excluded Middle - a thing is either is or is not; everything
must be either be or not be; between being and not-being, there is no
middle ground possible.
d) Principle of Sufficient Reason - nothing exists without a sufficient
reason for its being and existence.
4.2. A cause is defined as that from which in any way whatsoever exerts a
positive influence in the production of thing. The main kinds of causes explain
the how and the why of a being.
a) Material Cause - is that out of which something is made.
b) Formal Cause - is that through which something is made.
c) Efficient Cause - is that by which something is made.
d) Final Cause - is that on the account of which something is made.

Since its beginnings, however, the scope of philosophy has changed. Early
philosophers studied aspects of the natural and human world that later became separate
sciences astronomy, physics, psychology, sociology. On the other hand, certain basic
problems-the nature of the universe, the standard of justice, the validity of knowledge, the
correct application of reason, and the criteria of beauty - have been the domain of
philosophy from its beginnings to the present. These problems are the subject matter of the
five branches of philosophy-metaphysics, ethics, epistemology, logic, and aesthetics. Other
than these branches, there are also special branches of philosophy like, philosophy of
science, philosophy of state, philosophy of politics, philosophy of mathematics, philosophy
of education, philosophy of law, philosophy of language, and others.
For Double, (1999), although, philosophy is an organized body of knowledge, the
subject matter of philosophy is questions, which have three major characteristics: (1)
philosophical questions have answers, but the answers remain in dispute; (2) philosophical
questions cannot be settled by science, common sense, or faith; (3) philosophical questions
are of perennial intellectual interest to human beings. The methodology or method that
philosophers use to address philosophical questions is critical thinking that comes from the
word "criticize." Critical thinkers criticize the beliefs of everyone, including themselves. By
"criticize," Double means the careful, reflective, rational, and systematic approach to
questions of very general interest. Critical thinking means understanding of philosophy and
refraining from merely giving claims but through careful thought, one reasons through
argumentations. Though not every philosopher shares Double's beliefs, different
philosophers have their views of what philosophy is and should try to do.
Four main branches of Philosophy
1. Metaphysics - The investigation of the nature of being- the cause, the substance,
and the ultimate meaning or purpose of things -is the province of metaphysics.
Despite its profound, occult, and mysterious sound, the word "metaphysics"
resulted from a misunderstanding by an editor. Aristotle wrote a series of books
dealing with nature that he called the Physics (from the Greek word physis,
"nature"). An even more fundamental inquiry, he thought, was the nature of
ultimate reality. Aristotle called this inquiry "first philosophy." However, when his
editor, several decades after Aristotle's death, was sorting through his works and
giving them titles, he came to the batch of writings that followed the Physics. The
editor did not know what to call them so he invented the word- After Physics
(7meta meaning "after," and physica meaning "physics"). Metaphysics asks such
questions as: What are space and time? What is a thing and how does it differ from
an idea? Is a human being free to decide his fate or do circumstances determine
his actions?
Perhaps the simplest distinction in the world is that between persons and
things. Persons move at their own will. Things do not move unless they are acted
upon. Philosophers, who see the world as made up entirely of things, or matter,
are called materialists. Those who believe that the world of reality is primarily mind
are called idealists. Although the philoso phical pursuit of metaphysics is a
specialized and often highly technical discipline, metaphysics is really only an
extension of a fundamental and necessary drive in every human being to know
what is real. One of the most important tasks each of us faces in our lives is sorting
out the differences between appearance and reality, the phony and the genuine,
the mask and the substance. In fact, everyone distinguishes appearance from
reality, though not usually in a very systematic way. Most of us simply rely on the
appearance-reality distinction that we were taught by our parents and teachers at
an early age. Throughout our formative years we are taught to distinguish fiction
from fact, film, and dramatic representation from reality. Consider the expressions
like "this is only make believe," "it is only a movie," "it is just a play; they are only
acting." Similarly, most of us learn fairly early the difference between telling a joke
and telling a lie. If you are chased by a shadow, but at the last moment find
yourself lying in your own bed at home, you realize that the shadow was "not real"
but was "only a dream."
As we grow older we may begin to modify what have been taught is real
and unreal, selecting our own personal views about reality in the light of our
experiences and beliefs. The examples reveal a lot about the metaphysician's
search for reality, and we can learn from it if we reflect on it philosophically. We
experience things in daydreams, fantasies, wishing, playacting, but these are
usually discounted as unreal.
Sub-branches:
 Ontology – nature and existence of being.
 Cosmology – nature and origin of the universe.
 Theology – nature of God and religious beliefs.
2. Epistemology - How often have entire societies found themselves deluded about
the valid sources of knowledge and truth? For several hundred years, European
society and science believed that the earth was flat and that it lay at the center of
the universe. Everyone believed that the sun, planets, and stars revolved around
the earth. When Copernicus, Galileo, and others suggested that this was a mistake,
they were condemned and persecuted by church authorities. Church authorities
believed that the Scripture is the only source of true knowledge. According to the
Scripture, they claimed, the earth lies at the center of the universe. Today,
"creationists," who believe that the Bible account of how God created the world as
literally true, are sometimes attacked by biologists who believe in the theory of
evolution. During the Nazi era, German society claimed that it was a "scientific
fact" that the Germanic races were superior to all others. In the recent past,
reputable scientists claimed that women were inferior to men and that society
should treat them as such (Velasquez, 1999).
All these events demonstrate the critical importance both to us personally
and as society of looking carefully at the issues of truth and knowledge. What is
knowledge? What is truth? How do we tell the difference between the scientific
knowledge and doubtful pseudo-science? What are valid sources of knowledge and
 truth? One of the fundamental branches of philosophy is epistemology the study of
human knowledge and the conditions that make knowledge possible. Specifically,
epistemology deals with nature, sources, limitations, and validity of knowledge
(Velasquez, 1999).
Epistemological questions are basic to all other philosophical inquiries.
Everything we claim to know, whether in science, history, or everyday life,
amounts to little if we are unable to support our claims. Thus, neither a concept of
human nature and self, a theory of the universe, nor an assertion of an ordinary
event ("It is sunny" or This mango tastes sweet") escapes the need for justification.
Epistemology presents us with the task of explaining how we know what we claim
to know, how we can find out what we wish to know, and how we can judge
someone else's claim to knowledge. Epistemology addresses a variety of problems:
the reliability, extent, and kinds of knowledge; truth; language; and science and
scientific knowledge.
How do we acquire reliable knowledge? What is the source or basis of our
knowledge? Human knowledge may be regarded as having two parts. On the one
hand, he sees, hears, and touches; on the other, he organizes his mind what he
learns through the senses. Philosophers have given considerable attention to
questions about the sources of knowledge. Some philosophers think that the
particular things seen, heard, and touched are more important. They believe that
general ideas are formed from the examination of particular facts. This method is
called induction, and philosophers who feel that knowledge is acquired in this way
are called empiricists. Empiricism is the view that knowledge can be attained only
through sense experience. According to the empiricists, real knowledge is based on
what our sight, hearing, smell, and other senses tell us is really out there, not what
people make up in their heads.
Other philosophers think it is more important to find a general law
according to which particular facts can be understood or judged. This method is
called deduction; its advocates are called rationalists. For instance, what
distinguishes real knowledge from mere opinion, in the rationalist view, is that real
knowledge is based on the logic, the laws, and the methods that reason develops.
The best example of real knowledge, the rationalist holds, is mathematics, a realm
of knowledge that is obtained entirely by reason that we use to understand the
universe (Velasquez, 1999). A newer school, pragmatism, has a third approach to
these problems. Pragmatists believe that value in use is the real test of truth and
meaning. In other words, the meaning and truth of an idea are tested by its
practical consequences. Thus, it derived from the Greek word “episteme” meaning
knowledge or understanding and “logos” meaning study. In other words, it is the
study of the nature and scope of knowledge.
3. Axiology - Axiology derived from the Greek words “axios” meaning worthy and
“logos” meaning study. It is the study of principles and values. Axiology is the
branch of philosophy that considers the study of principles and values. These
values are divided into two main kinds: ethics and aesthetics. Ethics is the
questioning of morals and personal values. Aesthetics is the examination of what is
beautiful, enjoyable, or tasteful. In axiology education is more than just about
knowledge but also quality of life.
Ethics is the branch of philosophy that explores the nature of moral virtue
and evaluates human actions. It is generally a study of the nature of moral
judgments. Philosophical ethics attempts to provide an account of our
fundamental ethical ideas. Whereas religion has often helped motivate individuals
to obey the moral code of their society, philosophy is not content with traditional
or habitual ethics but adopts a critical perspective. It insists that obedience to
moral law be given a rational foundation. In the thought of Socrates, we see the
beginning of a transition from a traditional, religion-based morality to philosophical
ethics (White, 1991).
Virtually, all societies have developed rules and regulations, in particular,
about how business should be transacted and how business organizations should
be managed. For instance, food service institutions that intend to participate in the
"global marketplace," must first know the rules. In this case, the "sine qua non" for
"Business Ethics" is undeniable. Business ethics is a specialized study of moral right
or wrong. It is generally a study of moral judgments in a business context or
environment. Specifically, it analyzes the different ethical issues arising from the
conduct of doing business in its various forms and levels (White, 1993).
Why be ethical? And, what does being ethical really mean? Socrates and
Plato answered the first question by asserting a close relationship between moral
virtue and the healthy human personality. They argued that no matter what vice
looks like on the surface or what it achieves - wealth, power, fame, romance it is
actually a sign of weakness, not strength. Aristotle answered the second question
by stressing the inner dimension of human action. Virtue depends on character,
not deeds, and our character is shaped by every action that we perform.
The ideas of these three thinkers thereby underscore the relationship
between ethics and the very core of our being. Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle
showed that what we do helps or hurts ourselves as much as, if not more than, the
people with whom we deal. These philosophers therefore forcefully demonstrated
that our welfare is ultimately in our own hands; they argued for the seriousness of
taking care of the moral character of our actions; and they gave an interesting twist
to what it really means to "look out for number 1". In contrast to the pervasive
belief in our culture that satisfying an ever expanding list of physical and material
wants will lead to happiness, Socrates and Plato suggested precisely the opposite.
Their ethical outlook then, is a sobering caution about the difficulty of remaining in
control of our lives. By making our character, will, and intentions central elements
of moral virtue, Aristotle pointed out how critical it is to study our motivations and
master the inner forces that could lead to moral compromise (White, 1993).
There is a fundamental distinction in philosophical ethics. (1) The moral
discourse or normative ethics underpins what people ought to do. The person who
engages in this discourse is a moralist and moralizes in a non-pejorative sense. A
moralist is someone who uses moral language to what may be called a first-order
 way. The moralist engages in reflection, argument, or discussion of moral
judgments, that is, a particular group of normative judgments that is concerned
with what is morally right or wrong, good or evil. Finally, he talks about what
people ought to do.
Metaethics is interesting not only due to its connection with normative
ethics, but because it connects metaphysics and value theory. Scientific realism
yields subjectivism about many of the common sense properties of the physical
objects. This metaphysical subjectivism provides a model for subjectivism
regarding value. For instance, there is a natural inclination for philosophers who
think that redness exists only in the consciousness of the perceivers to take a
similar view toward evaluative properties such as goodness. Thus, subjectivism in
metaethics is supported by scientific realism in metaphysics and in turn supports
subjectivism in the free will problem.
As soon as human beings have comfortable homes to live, enough food so
that they are not endangered of starving, they begin to ask questions which
concern moral or ethical values and which give rise to religion. The first of these is
humanity's desire to find order in the universe that they seek through philosophy,
religion, and science. Human beings desire to find meaning in what they do. They
can find fulfillment in the great literature of the world that records the adventure
of the human soul. When humanity has learned to make something that is useful
to them, they begin to plan and dream how to make it beautiful. What therefore is
beauty? The establishment of criteria of beauty is the function of aesthetics.
Aesthetics is the science of the beautiful in its various manifestations-including the
sublime, comic, tragic, pathetic, and ugly.
Beauty is defined as the capacity of an object aesthetically contemplated
to yield feelings that are pleasant. This definition cannot be characterized simply
either as objective or as subjective. Even where beauty was most honoured and
most produced- in ancient Greece philosophers were helpless to pierce the secret
of its lure. Pythagoras began the game of aesthetics by reducing music to a
mathematical relation and ascribing a subtle harmony to the spheres. The pre
Socratic Greeks sought to define beauty in spatial and quantitative terms: music
was a regularity of sounds and plastic beauty was a regularity of proportions.
4. Logic - Logic introduces us to the abstract thinking of philosophy and familiarizes
us with some of its technical terminologies. It is the study of the methods and
principles used to distinguish correct reasoning from incorrect reasoning (Copi and
Cohen, 1998). There are objective criteria with which correct reasoning may be
defined. If these criteria are not known, then they cannot be used. The aim of the
study of logic is to discover and make available those criteria that can be used to
test arguments and to sort good arguments from bad ones.
Reasoning on every subject matter is the concern of the logician:
reasoning in science and medicine, in ethics and law, in politics and commerce, in
sports and games, and even in the simple affairs of everyday life. Very different
kinds of reasoning may be used, and all are of interest to the logician.
How often it happens that we have a vague suspicion that something is
wrong with an argument or even know for certain that it is invalid and yet cannot
state precisely what is wrong with it. The study of logic will enable us to pinpoint
the defects of faulty arguments - to explain exactly what is wrong with them and to
give the flaw a name. Logic, then, has the very practical purpose of helping us think
with order and ease and without error. It should enable us to discover defects in
the thinking of others and to avoid defects in our own thinking.
The strictly philosophical portions of logic, which show the connection of
the laws of logic with the basic principles underlying them, should give us a deep
understanding of the conditions of sound argument and therefore a profound trust
in the competence of the human mind, as well as great mental satisfaction.
The term "logic" comes from the Greek word "logike" and was coined by
Zeno, the Stoic (c.340-265 B.C.). Etymologically, it means a treatise on matters
pertaining to the human thought. Itis important to underpin that logic does not
provide us knowledge of the world directly, for logic is considered as a tool, and
therefore does not contribute directly to the content of our thoughts. Logic is not
interested in what we know regarding certain subjects. Its concern rather, is the
truth or the validity of our arguments regarding such objects
Specific fields in Philosophy.
1. Philosophy of Education - It deals with how children should be educated, what
they should be educated in, and what the ultimate purpose of education should be
for society.
2. Philosophy of Mind - It deals with the consciousness and how it interacts with the
body and the outside world.
3. Philosophy of History - It is a relative minor branch in the field of philosophy,
focusing on the study of history, writing about history, how history progresses, and
what impact history has upon the present day.
4. Philosophy of Science - It is concerned with how science operates, what the goals
of science should be what relationship science should have with society, the
differences between science and other activities.
5. Philosophy of Law - It explores such topics of what law is, what kinds of laws there
are, how law is or should be related to morality, and what sorts of principles should
govern punishment and criminal justice in general.
6. Philosophy of Language - It has close ties to both epistemology and metaphysics.
It treats a broad spectrum of questions about language, the nature of meaning, the
relations between words and things, the various theories of language learning, and
the distinction between literal and figurative uses of language.
Significance of Philosophy
1. Critical Thinking and General Problem Solving
2. Communication Skills
3. Persuasive Powers
4. Writing Skills
5. Probe into the Meaning and Value of Life
6. Help Paved the Way Towards Self-development and Self-discovery
7. Creation of our Own Philosophy in Life