Lesson 1

TOPIC: INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY

DURATION: 1 WEEK
PREFERRED DELIVERY: Video/ Recorded Lecture/Printed Module

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
By the end of this module, students will have completed the following objectives:
1. Define the philosophy.
2. Identify the different branches of philosophy.
3. Recognize the significance of philosophy.

TO DO LIST

Reading
o Course Content and Lecture in Module 1 (page 1-7)
Take Activity 1

COURSE CONTENT

There was a time in the history of education, where being educated meant having gone through just a handful of
subjects, among which are music, mathematics, rhetoric, and philosophy, with philosophy occupying a certain preimminence.
That time was Medieval Europe, a faraway place in the faraway past. Many changes had occurred since. At present, being
educated means having gone through the ever-growing literature of an ever narrowing discipline, and philosophy is longer
considered preimminent - in fact, far from it. While some students expect to glean exotic knowledge about the nature of the
subject, others are disgusted at the thought of its endless debates (Demetrio, 1997). Taking a course in philosophy is indeed
a little bit different from taking other courses from the languages, mathematics or the natural and social sciences.
The aim of this chapter is to discuss briefly, meaningful aspects and issues of philosophy.
Definition of Philosophy
When humanity began trying to explain the nature and origin of the universe through reasoning and observation, instead of
through poetry and mythology, it is said that humanity was taking the first step in the development of philosophy.
Etymologically, the word "philosophy" comes from two Greek words, philo, meaning "to love," and sophia, meaning "wisdom."
Thus, philosophy originally meant, "love of wisdom," and in a broad sense, wisdom is still the goal of philosophy. This "love of
wisdom is something in which all human nature in some measure at least participates and which predisposes all toward
sympathy for the philosopher s enterprises (Scott, et al., 1993). With this meaning, we realize that there is nothing disgust ing with
philosophy. It is not about rummaging through musty manuscripts of great dead men (though this is a part of
"philosophizing"). Rather, philosophy emphasizes our living desire to understand the world that surrounds us and the world within
us (Demetrio, 1997).

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 The proceeding discussions will have their present purpose if they make clear the point that "philosophers" are not
strange human beings, with interests and ambitions alien to the rest of humankind. Rather, one is a "philosopher" precisely
because one possesses and cherishes above the rest of humankind that "love of wisdom" which is a part of all human nature
and because one more reflectively and critically brings to light and examines the largest and widest implications of the life of all
human beings.
The ancient philosophers understood the term philosophy as the sum total of the main branches of scientific study
(physics, or the study of nature; mathematics, or the science of proportion; metaphysics, or the science of being as such;
logic, or the science of correct inferential thinking; and ethics, or the science of morality). Thus, there is no distinction between
philosophy and science, for the entire body of these sciences constitutes what we call philosophy.
Philosophy is also defined as the science that by natural light of reason studies the first causes or highest principles
of all things. Under this definition, four things are to be considered:
1. Science
It is called science because the investigation is systematic. It follows certain steps or it employs certain procedures.
In other words, it is an organized body of knowledge just like any other science.
2. Natural Light of Reason
Philosophy investigates things, not by using any other laboratory instrument or investigative tools, neither on the basis
of supernatural revelation, otherwise it becomes theology instead the philosopher uses his natural capacity to think, or simp ly
human reason alone, or the so-called unaided reason.
3. Study of All Things
This sets the distinction between philosophy from other sciences. All other sciences concern themselves with a particular
object of investigation. For example, anthropologists study human beings in relation with the society; sociologists study
society, its form, structures, and functions; botanists focus their attention to plants; linguists limit themselves with language;
theologians investigate God; whereas, a philosopher studies human beings, society, religion, language, God, plants, and
many more. In short, a philosopher does not limit himself to a particular object of inquiry. He questions almost anything, if not
everything.
4. First Cause or Highest Principle
A principle is that from which something proceeds in any manner whatsoever.
4.1 The First Principles
a. Principle of Identity - states that, whatever is, is; and whatever is not, is not; everything is what it is. Everything is its
own being, and not being is not being
b. Principle of Noncontradiction - states that it is impossible for a thing to be and not to be at the same time,and at the
same respect.
c. Principle of Excluded Middle - a thing is either is or is not; everything must be either be or not be; between
being and not-being, there is no middle ground possible.
d. Principle of Sufficient Reason - nothing exists without a sufficient reason for its being and existence.
4.2 A cause is defined as that from which in any way whatsoever exerts a positive influence in the production of
thing. The main kinds of causes explain the how and the why of a being.

a. Material Cause - is that out of which something is made.

b. Formal Cause - is that through which something is made.
c. Efficient Cause - is that by which something is made.
d. Final Cause - is that on the account of which something is made.

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 Since its beginnings, however, the scope of philosophy has changed. Early philosophers studied aspects of the
natural and human world that later became separate sciences astronomy, physics, psychology, sociology. On the other hand,
certain basic problems-the nature of the universe, the standard of justice, the validity of knowledge, the correct application of
reason, and the criteria of beauty - have been the domain of philosophy from its beginnings to the present. These problems are
the subject matter of the five branches of philosophy-metaphysics, ethics, epistemology, logic, and aesthetics. Other than these
branches, there are also special branches of philosophy like, philosophy of science, philosophy of state, philosophy of politics,
philosophy of mathematics, philosophy of education, philosophy of law, philosophy of language, and others.
For Double, (1999), although, philosophy is an organized body of knowledge, the subject matter of philosophy is
questions, which have three major characteristics: (1) philosophical questions have answers, but the answers remain in
dispute; (2) philosophical questions cannot be settled by science, common sense, or faith; (3) philosophical questions are of
perennial intellectual interest to human beings. The methodology or method that philosophers use to address philosophical
questions is critical thinking that comes from the word "criticize." Critical thinkers criticize the beliefs of everyone, including
themselves. By "criticize," Double means the careful, reflective, rational, and systematic approach to questions of very general
interest. Critical thinking means understanding of philosophy and refraining from merely giving claims but through careful
thought, one reasons through argumentations. Though not every philosopher shares Double's beliefs, different philosophers
have their views of what philosophy is and should try to do.

Four main branches of Philosophy

1. Metaphysics
The investigation of the nature of being- the cause, the substance, and the ultimate meaning or purpose of things -is the
province of metaphysics. Despite its profound, occult, and mysterious sound, the word "metaphysics" resulted from a
misunderstanding by an editor. Aristotle wrote a series of books dealing with nature that he called the Physics (from the Gre ek
word physis, "nature"). An even more fundamental inquiry, he thought, was the nature of ultimate reality. Aristotle called th is
inquiry "first philosophy." However, when his editor, several decades after Aristotle's death, was sorting through his works and
giving them titles, he came to the batch of writings that followed the Physics. The editor did not know what to call them so he
invented the word- After Physics (7meta meaning "after," and physica meaning "physics"). Metaphysics asks such questions as:
What are space and time? What is a thing and how does it differ from an idea? Is a human being free to decide his fate or
do circumstances determine his actions?
Perhaps the simplest distinction in the world is that between persons and things. Persons move at their own will.
Things do not move unless they are acted upon. Philosophers who see the world as made up entirely of things, or matter, are
called materialists. Those who believe that the world of reality is primarily mind are called idealists. Although the philoso phical
pursuit of metaphysics is a specialized and often highly technical discipline, metaphysics is really only an extension of a
fundamental and necessary drive in every human being to know what is real. One of the most important tasks each of us
faces in our lives is sorting out the differences between appearance and reality, the phony and the genuine, the mask and the
substance. In fact, everyone distinguishes appearance from reality, though not usually in a very systematic way. Most of us simply
rely on the appearance-reality distinction that we were taught by our parents and teachers at an early age. Throughout our
formative years we are taught to distinguish fiction from fact, film, and dramatic representation from reality. Consider the
expressions like "this is only make believe," "it is only a movie," "it is just a play; they are only acting." Similarly, most of us
learn fairly early the difference between telling a joke and telling a lie. If you are chased by a shadow, but at the last moment find
yourself lying in your own bed at home, you realize that the shadow was "not real" but was "only a dream."
As we grow older we may begin to modify what have been taught is real and unreal, selecting our own personal views
about reality in the light of our experiences and beliefs. The examples reveal a lot about the metaphysician's search for reality,
and we can learn from it if we reflect on it philosophically. We experience things in daydreams, fantasies, wishing, playacti ng, but
these are usually discounted as unreal.
Sub-branches:
• Ontology – nature and existence of being.

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 • Cosmology – nature and origin of the universe.
• Theology – nature of God and religious beliefs.
2. Epistemology
How often have entire societies found themselves deluded about the valid sources of knowledge and truth? For
several hundred years, European society and science believed that the earth was flat and that it lay at the center of the
universe. Everyone believed that the sun, planets, and stars revolved around the earth. When Copernicus, Galileo, and others
suggested that this was a mistake, they were condemned and persecuted by church authorities. Church authorities believed that
the Scripture is the only source of true knowledge. According to the Scripture, they claimed, the earth lies at the center of the
universe. Today, "creationists," who believe that the Bible account of how God created the world as literally true, are sometimes
attacked by biologists who believe in the theory of evolution. During the Nazi era, German society claimed that it was a "scientific
fact" that the Germanic races were superior to all others. In the recent past, reputable scientists claimed that women were inferior
to men and that society should treat them as such (Velasquez, 1999).
All these events demonstrate the critical importance both to us personally and as society of looking carefully at the issues
of truth and knowledge. What is knowledge? What is truth? How do we tell the difference between the scientific knowledge
and doubtful pseudo-science? What are valid sources of knowledge and truth? One of the fundamental branches of philosophy
is epistemology the study of human knowledge and the conditions that make knowledge possible. Specifically, epistemology
deals with nature, sources, limitations, and validity of knowledge (Velasquez, 1999).
Epistemological questions are basic to all other philosophical inquiries. Everything we claim to know, whether in
science, history, or everyday life, amounts to little if we are unable to support our claims. Thus, neither a concept of human nature
and self, a theory of the universe, nor an assertion of an ordinary event ("It is sunny" or This mango tastes sweet") escapes
the need for justification. Epistemology presents us with the task of explaining how we know what we claim to know, how we can
find out what we wish to know, and how we can judge someone else's claim to knowledge. Epistemology addresses a
variety of problems: the reliability, extent, and kinds of knowledge; truth; language; and science and scientific knowledge.
How do we acquire reliable knowledge? What is the source or basis of our knowledge? Human knowledge may be
regarded as having two parts. On the one hand, he sees, hears, and touches; on the other, he organizes his mind what he
learns through the senses. Philosophers have given considerable attention to questions about the sources of knowledge.
Some philosophers think that the particular things seen, heard, and touched are more important. They believe that general ideas
are formed from the examination of particular facts. This method is called induction, and philosophers who feel that
knowledge is acquired in this way are called empiricists. Empiricism is the view that knowledge can be attained only through
sense experience. According to the empiricists, real knowledge is based on what our sight, hearing, smell, and other senses tell
us is really out there, not what people make up in their heads.
Other philosophers think it is more important to find a general law according to which particular facts can be
understood or judged. This method is called deduction; its advocates are called rationalists. For instance, what distinguishes real
knowledge from mere opinion, in the rationalist view, is that real knowledge is based on the logic, the laws, and the
methods that reason develops. The best example of real knowledge, the rationalist holds, is mathematics, a realm of
knowledge that is obtained entirely by reason that we use to understand the universe (Velasquez, 1999). A newer school,
pragmatism, has a third approach to these problems. Pragmatists believe that value in use is the real test of truth and meaning.
In other words, the meaning and truth of an idea are tested by its practical consequences. Thus, it derived from the Greek
word “episteme” meaning knowledge or understanding and “logos” meaning study. In other words, it is the study of the nature
and scope of knowledge.
3. Axiology
Axiology derived from the Greek words “axios” meaning worthy and “logos” meaning study. It is the study of principles
and values. Axiology is the branch of philosophy that considers the study of principles and values. These values are divided into
two main kinds: ethics and aesthetics. Ethics is the questioning of morals and personal values. Aesthetics is the
examination of what is beautiful, enjoyable, or tasteful. In axiology education is more than just about knowledge but also
quality of life.

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 Ethics is the branch of philosophy that explores the nature of moral virtue and evaluates human actions. It is generally a
study of the nature of moral judgments. Philosophical ethics attempts to provide an account of our fundamental ethical
ideas. Whereas religion has often helped motivate individuals to obey the moral code of their society, philosophy is not cont ent
with traditional or habitual ethics but adopts a critical perspective. It insists that obedience to moral law be given a rational
foundation. In the thought of Socrates, we see the beginning of a transition from a traditional, religion -based morality to
philosophical ethics (White, 1991).
Virtually, all societies have developed rules and regulations, in particular, about how business should be transacted and
how business organizations should be managed. For instance, food service institutions that intend to participate in the "glob al
marketplace," must first know the rules. In this case, the "sine qua non" for "Business Ethics" is undeniable. Business ethics is a
specialized study of moral right or wrong. It is generally a study of moral judgments in a business context or environment.
Specifically, it analyzes the different ethical issues arising from the conduct of doing business in its various forms and levels
(White, 1993).
Why be ethical? And, what does being ethical really mean? Socrates and Plato answered the first question by
asserting a close relationship between moral virtue and the healthy human personality. They argued that no matter what vice
looks like on the surface or what it achieves - wealth, power, fame, romance it is actually a sign of weakness, not strength.
Aristotle answered the second question by stressing the inner dimension of human action. Virtue depends on character, not
deeds, and our character is shaped by every action that we perform.
The ideas of these three thinkers thereby underscore the relationship between ethics and the very core of our being.
Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle showed that what we do helps or hurts ourselves as much as, if not more than, the people with
whom we deal. These philosophers therefore forcefully demonstrated that our welfare is ultimately in our own hands; they
argued for the seriousness of taking care of the moral character of our actions; and they gave an interesting twist to what it really
means to "look out for number 1". In contrast to the pervasive belief in our culture that satisfying an ever expanding list of
physical and material wants will lead to happiness, Socrates and Plato suggested precisely the opposite. Their ethical
outlook then, is a sobering caution about the difficulty of remaining in control of our lives. By making our character, will, and
intentions central elements of moral virtue, Aristotle pointed out how critical it is to study our motivations and master the inner
forces that could lead to moral compromise (White, 1993).
There is a fundamental distinction in philosophical ethics. (1) The moral discourse or normative ethics underpins what
people ought to do. The person who engages in this discourse is a moralist and moralizes in a non-pejorative sense. A moralist
is someone who uses moral language to what may be called a first-order way. The moralist engages in reflection, argument,
or discussion of moral judgments, that is, a particular group of normative judgments that is concerned with what is morally
right or wrong, good or evil. Finally, he talks about what people ought to do.
Metaethics is interesting not only due to its connection with normative ethics, but because it connects metaphysics and
value theory. Scientific realism yields subjectivism about many of the common sense properties of the physical objects. This
metaphysical subjectivism provides a model for subjectivism regarding value. For instance, there is a natural inclination for
philosophers who think that redness exists only in the consciousness of the perceivers to take a similar view toward
evaluative properties such as goodness. Thus, subjectivism in metaethics is supported by scientific realism in metaphysics and
in turn supports subjectivism in the free will problem.
As soon as human beings have comfortable homes to live, enough food so that they are not endangered of starving,
they begin to ask questions which concern moral or ethical values and which give rise to religion. The first of these is
humanity's desire to find order in the universe that they seek through philosophy, religion, and science. Human beings desire to
find meaning in what they do. They can find fulfillment in the great literature of the world that records the adventure of the human
soul. When humanity has learned to make something that is useful to them, they begin to plan and dream how to make it
beautiful. What therefore is beauty? The establishment of criteria of beauty is the function of aesthetics. Aesthetics is the science
of the beautiful in its various manifestations-including the sublime, comic, tragic, pathetic, and ugly.
Beauty is defined as the capacity of an object aesthetically contemplated to yield feelings that are pleasant. This
definition cannot be characterized simply either as objective or as subjective. Even where beauty was most honored and most
produced- in ancient Greece philosophers were helpless to pierce the secret of its lure. Pythagoras began the game of
aesthetics by reducing music to a mathematical relation and ascribing a subtle harmony to the spheres. The pre Socratic

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Greeks sought to define beauty in spatial and quantitative terms: music was a regularity of sounds and plastic beauty was a
regularity of proportions.
4. Logic
Logic introduces us to the abstract thinking of philosophy and familiarizes us with some of its technical terminologies. It
is the study of the methods and principles used to distinguish correct reasoning from incorrect reasoning (Copi and Cohen, 1998).
There are objective criteria with which correct reasoning may be defined. If these criteria are not known, then they cannot
be used. The aim of the study of logic is to discover and make available those criteria that can be used to test arguments
and to sort good arguments from bad ones.
Reasoning on every subject matter is the concern of the logician: reasoning in science and medicine, in ethics and law,
in politics and commerce, in sports and games, and even in the simple affairs of everyday life. Very different kinds of
reasoning may be used, and all are of interest to the logician.
How often it happens that we have a vague suspicion that something is wrong with an argument or even know for
certain that it is invalid and yet cannot state precisely what is wrong with it. The study of logic will enable us to pinpoint the
defects of faulty arguments - to explain exactly what is wrong with them and to give the flaw a name. Logic, then, has the very
practical purpose of helping us think with order and ease and without error. It should enable us to discover defects in the
thinking of others and to avoid defects in our own thinking.
The strictly philosophical portions of logic, which show the connection of the laws of logic with the basic principles
underlying them, should give us a deep understanding of the conditions of sound argument and therefore a profound trust in the
competence of the human mind, as well as great mental satisfaction.
The term "logic" comes from the Greek word "logike" and was coined by Zeno, the Stoic (c.340-265 B.C.).
Etymologically, it means a treatise on matters pertaining to the human thought. Itis important to underpin that logic does not
provide us knowledge of the world directly, for logic is considered as a tool, and therefore does not contribute directly to the
content of our thoughts. Logic is not interested in what we know regarding certain subjects. Its concern rather, is the truth or the
validity of our arguments regarding such objects
Specific fields in Philosophy.
1. Philosophy of Education
It deals with how children should be educated, what they should be educated in, and what the ultimate purpose of
education should be for society.
2. Philosophy of Mind
It deals with the consciousness and how it interacts with the body and the outside world.
3. Philosophy of History
It is a relative minor branch in the field of philosophy, focusing on the study of history, writing about history, how
history progresses, and what impact history has upon the present day.
4. Philosophy of Science
It is concerned with how science operates, what the goals of science should be what relationship science should have
with society, the differences between science and other activities.
5. Philosophy of Law
It explores such topics of what law is, what kinds of laws there are, how law is or should be related to morality, and what
sorts of principles should govern punishment and criminal justice in general.
6. Philosophy of Language

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 It has close ties to both epistemology and metaphysics. It treats a broad spectrum of questions about language, the
nature of meaning, the relations between words and things, the various theories of language learning, and the distinction
between literal and figurative uses of language.
Significance of Philosophy
1. Critical Thinking and General Problem Solving
2. Communication Skills
3. Persuasive Powers
4. Writing Skills
5. Probe into the Meaning and Value of Life
6. Help Paved the Way Towards Self-development and Self-discovery
7. Creation of our Own Philosophy in Life

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 ACTIVITY #1
NAME DATE

YEAR & SECTION SCORE:

DIRECTION: Answer the questions below. Write your answers legibly on the space provided.

1. Why is it important to study philosophy?

2. How can you apply the four main branches of philosophy in your own chosen field?

Metaphysics

Epistemology

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Axiology

Logic

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