VITAMINS,WATER and

MINERALS METABOLISM

By:
SYAHRIJUITA
BIOCHEMISTRY DEPARTMENT,MEDICAL FACULTY
HASANUDDIN UNIVERSITY
September 2014
Topic:
1.VITAMINS : 2.WATER :
Defenition Structure
Water soluble vit Function
Fat soluble vit Metabolism
& Metabolism
3. MINERALS :
Defenition
Classification
Metabolism
OBJECTIVES
1. Can explain about defenition,
structure,function and vitamins
metabolism
2. Can explain about
structure,function and water
metabolism
3. Can explain about
defenition,classification, and minerals
metabolism
all amounts

Defenition:
Vitamins : essential organic compounds
that the animal organism is not capable of
forming itself, although it requires them in
small amounts for metabolism.
. Vitamin requirements vary from species to species and
are influenced by:
- age
- sex
- physiological conditions such as :
pregnancy, breast-feeding, physical exercise
- nutrition
Classification
Functions:
Most vitamins are precursors of
coenzymes water soluble
Visual process (A)
Precursors of hormones (D)
Act as antioxidants (E)
Coagulation factors (K)
etc
Metabolism of Vitamins
 Metabolism
A healthy diet usually covers average daily vitamin
requirements.
By contrast, malnutrition,malnourishment (e. g., an
unbalanced diet in older people, malnourishment in
alcoholics,ready meals), or resorption disturbances
lead to an inadequate supply of vitamins from which
hypovitaminosis,
or in extreme results avitaminosis. Medical
treatments that kill the intestinal flora
e. g., antibioticscan also lead to vitamin
deficiencies (K, B12, H) due to the absence of
bacterial vitamin synthesis.
Metabolism
The causes of vitamin deficiencies can
be treated by improving nutrition and
by administering vitamins in tablet
form.
An overdose of vitamins only leads to
hypervitaminoses, with toxic
symptoms (vitamins A and D )
Normally, excess vitamins are rapidly
excreted with the urine.
Structure and Function
VITAMIN A

The active forming of vitamin A : retinol, retinal, and

asam retinoat.
-karoten is precusor vit A from diets
Retinol : coenzim, synthesis of glycoprotein and
mucopolisacarida.
Retinal : visual process as retina pigmen rodopsin.
Asam retinoat : growth factors
Vitamin A stored in hepar
Vitamin A deficiency can result in night blindness, visual
impairment, and growth disturbances.
Overdoses vitamin A was toxic (hepatospenomegali,
bone pain, vomit, dan diare
 Vitamin D
Vitamin D (calciol, cholecalciferol) is the precursor of
the hormonecalcitriol (1",25-dihydroxycholecalciferol
Together with two other hormones (parathyrin and
Calcitonin,) calcitriol regulates the calcium metabolism .
Calcitriol can be synthesized in the skin from 7-
dehydrocholesterol, an endogenous steroid, by a
photochemical reaction.
Vitamin D deficiencies only occur when the skin receives
insuficient exposure to ultraviolet light
vitamin D is lacking in the diet.
Deficiency is observed in the form of rickets in children and
osteomalacia in adults
in both cases, bone mineralization is disturbed.
 Vitamin E

The Actve forming of Vitamin E : alfa

tocopherol
related compounds only occur in plants
(e. g., wheat germ).
In the lipid phase, vitamin E is mainly
located in biological membranes,
as an antioxidant it protects unsaturated
lipids against ROS and other radicals
 Vitamin K
The active forming of Vitamin K :phylloquinone
and similar substances with modified side chains are
involved in carboxylating
glutamate residues of coagulation factors in the liver
The form that acts as a cofactor for carboxylase is
derived from the vitamin by enzymatic reduction.
Vitamin K antagonists (e. g., coumarin derivatives)
inhibit this reduction and consequently carboxylation as
well.
This fact is used to inhibit blood coagulation in
prophylactic treatment against thrombosis.
Vitamin K deficiency occurs only rarely, as the
vitamin is formed by bacteria of the intestinal flora.
Structure and Function
 VITAMIN B1

Vitamin B1 = thiamine
The aktive forming : tiamin difosfat
coenzim.
Defisiensi thiamine can results disturbance
of cell energy forming, beri-beri (i
neuropaty, insufisients of hepar, dan atrofi
of muscle
VITAMIN B2
Vitamin B2 = riboflavin

prekursor coenzim FMN (flavin mononukleotida)

and FAD (flavin dinukleotida).
Defisients of vitamin B2 with symptoms:
glossitis, seboroic, stomatitis angularis, cheilosis,
and fotofobia.
VITAMIN B3
Vitamin B3 = niasin
prekursor coenzim NAD (nikotinamida adenin
dinukleotida) dan NADP (nikotinamida adenin
dinukleotida fosfat)
Defisients of vitamin B3 can results skin damage
(pelagra), gastrointestinal distrub, and
depression.
VITAMIN B5
Vitamin B5 = Panthotenat acid
Biosinthesis of koenzim A metabolism of carbohidrat,
fatty acid, and amino acid.
Defisients of vitamin B5 is rare because easy to take it
from many diet.

VITAMIN B6
The name is pyridoxin
The aktive forming is piridoksal fosfat, coenzim for
biosinthesis and catabolism and amino
acid,glycogenolysis.
Defisients vitamin B6 : rare
Isoniazid and penicillamin made complex relationships
with B6, results defisients.
VITAMIN B12

The name =cobalamin.

Only synthesis by mikroorganisma, found only
animals diets and not from plants.
Defisients ofvitamin B12 can results anemia
pernisiosa.

VITAMIN H
The name = Biotin.
coenzim for carboksilation reaction (exp; asetil KoA
karboksilase lipogenesis)
Found in many diets and can be synthesis by
intestinal bacteria
Defisients is rare, but can results from long antibiotic
therapy and consumption of many original egg
avidin
 FOLAT

As anion of folat acid, Formed by one derivat pteridin, 4-

amino benzoat, and glutamat acid.
Reduction of folat can results tetrahidrofolat coenzym
C1 metabolism (biysinthesis serin, metionin, cholin,
glysin, and nucleotida purin)
Defisients of folat is often occurdisturbance of
gangguanabolism nucleat acid and lipid metabolism
Defisients of folat often made anemia megaloblastic
Intake folat must increase at pregnant trimester 2 and 3
because in this fase, there increased blood cells
proliferat.ion
VITAMIN C

Vitamin C = ascorbat acid

Needed as coenzim for biosynthesis of colagen
( protein connecting). The collagen is the basic
substance of matrixextracelluler and bone .
Tyrosine degradation, catecholamine synthesis, and
bile acid biosynthesis
Vitamin C is an important antioxidant like vitamin E
Defisiense of vitamin C can results scorbut (scurvy).
Scurvy is characterized by easily bruised skin, muscle
fatigue, soft swollen gums, decreased wound healing
and hemorrhaging, osteoporosis, and anemia
Structure Of Water
The water molecule :
is a irreguler

has tetrahedran with

oxygen at its center

The 105 degree angle
between the hidrogens
Forms Hidrogens bonds
The Functions of Water
Water is an ideal biologic solven
Influences the structure of biomolecule
stabilizer
Water is an excellent nucleophile
Water Steady State
Amount Ingested = Amount Eliminated

Pathological losses:
vascular bleeding (H20,
Na+)
vomiting (H20, H+)
diarrhea (H20, HCO3-).
Body Fluids and
Fluid Compartments

The percentage of total body water: 45-75%

Intracellular compartment
2/3 of body water (40% body weight)
Extracellular compartment
1/3 of body water (20% body weight)
the blood plasma (water=4.5% body weight)
interstitial fluid and lymph (water=15% body
weight)
transcellular fluids: e.g. cerebrospinal fluid,
aqueous humor (1.5% BW).
The normal composition of the major body fluid
compartments is approximately as follows
(mmol/l, except Ca2+)

Constituent Plasma Intestitial Fluid Intracellular Fluid

Na 142 145 12
K 4 4,1 150
Ca 12 12 <10 mol/L*
Mg 0,75 1,5 2
Cl 103 113 4
HCO3 25 27 12
Protein 60 25

* Free ionic Ca2+ is very low inside cells, total calcium may be
much higher (1-2mmol/l)
Body Water Distribution
Individual variability (lean body mass)
55 - 60% of body weight in adult males
Input
50 - 55% of body weight in adult female
~42 L For a 70 Kg man.

RBC PLASMA WATER

ECF
5% 3L
20% 14 L
CELL WATER INTERSTITIAL
40% 28 L FLUID
COMPARTMENT
15% 10 L
TRANSCELLULAR WATER

1% 1L
Body Fluid and Electrolyte Balance

Water input and output

The role of the kidneys in maintaining
balance of water and electrolytes
The regulation of body water balance
thirst sensation
control of renal water excretion by ADH
 Defenition of Minerals

Inorganic elemental atoms that are essential nutrients.

Not changed by digestion or metabolism.
 Functions of Minerals
Some participate with enzymes in
metabolic processes (cofactors)
Some have structural functions (Ca, P in
bone; S in keratin)
Acid-base and water balance (Na, K, Cl)
Nerve & muscle function (Ca, Na, K)
Unique functions (e.g., heme, B12,
thyroid hormones)
Classification
Macro or Major minerals Micro or Trace minerals
Sodium, potassium, (body needs relatively
magnesium, calcium, less)
phosphorus, sulfur, Chromium, manganese,
chloride iron, cobalt,
molybdenum, copper,
zinc, fluoride, iodine,
selenium, silicon, tin,
arsenic, nickel
Present in body tissues Present in body tissues
at concentrations >50 at concentrations <50
mg/kg (50 ppm) or
mg/kg (50 ppm) or
Needed < 100 mg/d
Needed > 100 mg/d
Nutritionally Important Minerals
Macro Trace
Element g/kg Element mg/kg

Ca 15 Fe 20-50
P 10 Zn 10-50
K 2 Cu 1-5
Na 1.6 Mo 1-4
Cl 1.1 Se 1-2
S 1.5 I 0.3-0.6
Mg 0.4 Mn 0.2-0.5
Co 0.02-0.1
Minerals in Foods
Found in all food groups.
More reliably found in
animal products.
Often other substances in
foods decrease absorption
(bioavailability) of minerals
Oxalate, found in spinach,
prevents absorption of most
calcium in spinach.
Phytate, form of phosphorous
in most plants makes it poorly
available
Mineral Interactions
Factors Affecting Requirements
Physiological state/level of production
Interactions with other minerals
Tissue storage
Form fed
inorganic vs organic forms
Na selenite vs Na selenate vs selenomethionine
Deficiencies and Excesses
Most minerals have an optimal range
Below leads to deficiency symptoms
Above leads to toxicity symptoms
Mineral content of soils dictates mineral
status of plants (i.e., feeds)
May take many months to develop
Time impacted by body stores
Requirements and Toxicities
Element Species Requirement, Toxic level,
mg/kg mg/kg
Cu Cattle 5-8 115
Swine 6 250
Co Cattle 0.06 60

I Livestock 0.1 ?

Se Cattle 0.1 3-4

Horses 0.1 5-40
The Major Minerals: an Overview
Macrominerals
Needed in > 100 mg/d
Calcium
Phosphorus
Magnesium
Sodium
Chloride
Potassium
Bioavailability, & Regulation of
Major Minerals
Bioavailability
Influenced by genetics, aging, nutritional status &
other food compounds
Absorption
Small intestine & large intestine
Regulation
Kidneys & small intestine
Calcium
Most abundant mineral
in animal tissues
99% Ca in skeleton
Present in:
Blood & other tissues
Lots of functions
Bone structure
Nerve function
Blood clotting
Muscle contraction
Cellular metabolism
 Calcium
Both Ca and P are required for bone
formation and other non-skeletal functions
Dietary ratio of 1:1 to 2:1 is good for most
animals (exception is laying hen, 13:1;
Ca:nonphytate phosphorous)
Calcium Absorption
Dependent on Vitamin D
Ca binding protein in intestinal epithelial cell
Absorption depends on need
Particularly high during growth, pregnancy and
lactation
Bioavailability decreased by
Phytates (grains)
Oxalates
Wheat bran
Low estrogen levels (postmenopausal women)
 Calcium Regulation
Plasma Ca is regulated variable
Normal plasma concentration is 8-12 mg/dl
 Calcium Regulation
Three hormones involved in regulation
Vitamin D3
from kidney
Parathyroid hormone (PTH)
from parathyroid gland
Calcitonin
from thyroid gland
PTH and Vitamin D3 act to increase plasma Ca,
while calcitonin acts to decrease plasma Ca
Responses to Low Blood Calcium
Parathyroid hormone (PTH) released
Stimulates conversion of inactive form of
vitamin D to calcitrol
Increases in blood calcium
Small intestine
Resorption at kidneys & blood
Regulation of
Calcium
Homeostasis
 Calcium Deficiencies
Rickets
in growing animals
Osteomalacia (osteoporosis)
in adult animals
Milk fever (parturient paresis)
in lactating animals
Calcium and Bone Health
Bone growth is
greatest during
linear growth
Peaks out at around
age 30
Calcium in bones
used as reservoir for
other needs.
Maintains blood
calcium homeostasis
Calcium and Osteoporosis
Around age 40,
bone breakdown
exceeds formation.
Ideally, want very
high bone mass
when this begins.
By age 65, some
women have lost
50% of bone mass.
Prevention is the Key
Maintain adequate
calcium and vitamin D
intakemany
recommend
supplements?
Most are absorbed
similarly
Costs vary widely
Whats wrong with dairy
products?
Perform weight-bearing
exercise
Take estrogen
supplements?
Structural Functions of Calcium:
Bones & Teeth
Bones
Osteoblasts
Bone formation
Osteoclasts
Breakdown of older bone
Hydroxyapatite
Large crystal-like molecule
Regulatory Functions of Calcium
Stimulates blood clotting
Muscle contractions
Transmission of nerve impulses
Vision
Regulation of blood glucose
Cell differentiation
Cofactor for energy metabolism
Focus on Foods: Milk, Calcium, &
Chronic Disease
Associations of reduced risk of chronic
disease:
Degenerative diseases
Heart disease
Lowers blood pressure
Cancer
Breast, prostate, colon
Obesity
Calcium Toxicity
Deposition in soft tissue

Impaired kidney function

Interference of other nutrient

absorption
Iron & zinc
Phosphorous
Functions
Similar to calcium
Vitally important in energy metabolism
ATP
sugar phosphates
Phosphoproteins
Deficiencies include
Rickets or osteomalacia
Pica (depraved appetite) chewing of wood,
bones
Low fertility and poor milk production or growth?
Phosphorous
Impact on environment has scientists
revisiting nutritional requirements
Requirements are being lowered without
any negative effects on reproduction or
milk production
Bioavailability could be improved if
phytate P can be reduced
Main source of P in grain
Phosphorus (P)
Component of cell membranes & walls
Found in all foods
Structural & functional roles in body
Energy metabolism
Metabolism & Regulation of
Phosphorus in the Body
Small intestine
Vitamin D-dependent active transport
Simple diffusion

Concentrations controlled by:

Calcitriol, PTH, calcitonin
Functions of Phosphorus
Phospholipids
Component of:
DNA & RNA
ATP
Protein synthesis
Energy metabolism
Maintenance of blood pH
Forms hydroxyapatite
Phosphorus Toxicity
Mineralization of soft tissues
Sodium
Absolutely an essential nutrient, but has been
demonized like cholesterol.
Typical intakes way higher than what is
needed in humans; added to livestock diets.
Body usually gets rid of excess quite easily.
Functions
Acid-base and osmotic balance of body fluids
Major cation of extracellular fluid
Nerve transmission
Transport and absorption of sugars and amino acids
Sodium and Health
High blood sodium is
associated with high
blood pressure and
risk of heart disease
However, high blood
sodium rarely due to
dietary excess.
Again, genetics and
other factors are
involved.
Sodium & Chloride
Commonly found together in foods

Join via ionic bonds to form salt

Added freely to foods during:

Processing
Cooking
A meal
Did you know
Salt free means:
Less than 5 mg sodium/serving

Very low salt means:

Less than 35 mg sodium/serving

Low salt
Less than 140 mg sodium/serving
Dietary Sources & Bioavailability
Table salt
Monosodium glutamate
Highly processed foods
Condiments
Some meats, dairy products, poultry &
seafood
Bioavailability
Affected by malabsorption
Regulation of Sodium & Chloride
in the Body
Small intestine
Sodium absorbed first
Chloride second
Sodium
Absorbed with glucose
Also actively absorbed in colon
Water absorption
Regulation of Sodium in Blood
Functions of Sodium & Chloride
Electrolytes
Fluid balance
Sodium
Nerve function
Muscle contraction
Chloride
HCl production
Removal of carbon dioxide
Immune function
Sodium & Chloride Deficiencies
Infants & children
Diarrhea and vomiting
Athletes
Endurance sports
Symptoms
Nausea, dizziness, muscle cramps, coma
Overconsumption of Sodium
Chloride
Increased blood pressure
Susceptible individuals
Elderly
African Americans
Those with:
Hypertension
Diabetes
Chronic kidney disease
Focus on Food Salt: Is It Really
So Bad?
Salt sensitivity affected by:

Genetics
Exercise
Responsiveness of renin-angiotensin-
aldosterone system
Chlorine
Functions
Acid-base and osmotic regulation
HCl and chloride salts in gastric secretions
Deficiencies
Metabolic alkalosis
Increased bicarbonate compensates for
decreased Cl
Growth retardation
Sulfur
Component of amino acids
cystine, cysteine, and methionine for
bioactive and structural proteins
wool contains about 4% sulfur
Chondroitin sulfate is a constituent of
cartilage
Deficiency is related to protein
deficiency
Magnesium
Functions
Associated with Ca and P
70% of Mg in skeleton
Enzyme activation (e.g., pyruvate dehydrogenase)
Deficiency
Hypomagnesemic tetany (grass tetany)
early lactating cows on grass
poor nervous and muscular control
Magnesium (Mg): Dietary
Sources & Bioavailability
Green leafy vegetables, seafood,
legumes, nuts, dairy products,
chocolate, brown rice, whole grains

Bioavailability influenced by:

Calcium
Phosphorus
Metabolism & Regulation of
Magnesium in the Body
Stabilizes enzymes
Neutralizes negatively charged ions
Energy metabolism
Cofactor for over 300 enzymes
DNA & RNA metabolism
Nerve & muscle function
Magnesium Deficiency & Toxicity
Deficiencies
Alcoholics
Abnormal nerve & muscle function
? increase risk for CVD & type 2 diabetes
Toxicity
Large dose supplements
Intestinal distress, alterations in heart beat
Potassium
Functions
Regulation of osmotic and acid-base balance
Major cation of intracellular fluid
nerve and muscle excitability
Cofactor for several reactions in carbohydrate
metabolism
Major salt in ruminant sweat
Increases requirement in heat stress
Typically high in forages
 Potassium (K): Dietary Sources &
Bioavailability
Legumes, potatoes,
seafood, dairy
products, meat,
fruits/veg

Bioavailability
High
Regulation & Functions of
Potassium in the Body
Absorption in small intestine & colon
Blood potassium regulated by:
Kidneys
Aldosterone increases excretion
Electrolyte
Maintains fluid balance
Muscle function
Nerve function
Energy metabolism
Potassium Deficiency & Toxicity
Deficiency
Diarrhea & vomiting
Diuretics
Hypokalemia
Symptoms
Muscle weakness, constipation, irritability,
confusion, ? insulin resistance, irregular heart
function, decreased blood pressure, difficulty
breathing
Toxicity
Supplementation
The Trace Minerals: An Overview
Inorganic atoms or molecules

Microminerals or trace elements

< 100 mg/day needed

Bioavailability & Regulation of
Trace Minerals
Bioavailability influenced by:
Genetics
Nutritional status
Nutrient interactions
Aging
Absorbed in small intestine
Circulated in blood
Deficiencies & toxicities rare
Except genetic disorders & environmental
exposure
 Functions of Trace Minerals in the
Body
Cofactors
Metalloenzyme
Components of nonenzymatic molecules
Provide structure to mineralized tissues
Trace Elements (minerals)
Need small amounts of these.
Found in plants and animals.
Content in plant foods depends on soil
content (where plant was grown).
They are difficult to quantify biochemically.
Bioavailability often influenced by other
dietary factors (especially other minerals)
 Iron
Most common nutrient
deficiency in the world.
Functions
Oxygen transport via hemoglobin
Thus, necessary for ATP
production!
Essential component of many
enzymes
Immune function
Brain function
Iron deficiency/toxicity thought to
slow mental development in kids.
Iron in the Body
70% of iron in body is functional; found
in enzymes and other molecules
>80% of this found in red blood cells
30% of iron is in storage depots or
transport proteins
Iron absorption, transport, storage and
loss is highly regulated.
Iron Absorption
Primary regulator of
iron homeostasis
1-50% of iron is
absorbed.
If body needs more
iron, it increases
amount of transferrin
an iron carrying protein.
Iron can also be stored
in another protein called
ferritin
Iron Absorption
Transport across
Brush border
Basolateral membrane
Heme iron
Chemical modification not needed
Nonheme iron
Reduced to ferrous form
Ferritin
Effect of Iron Status on Iron
Absorption
Effect of Iron Status on Iron
Absorption
Iron deficiency
Increases production of transport proteins
Decreases ferritin production
Adequate or excess iron
Decreases production of transport proteins
 Iron Circulation, Uptake Into
Cells, & Storage
Transferrin
Delivers iron to body
cells
Transferrin receptors
Iron Circulation, Uptake Into
Cells, & Storage
Iron storage compounds

Ferritin
Main storage form
Hemosiderin
Long-term storage
 Absorption, cont.
Iron from animal sources
much better absorbed than
that from plant sources
Absorption of iron from
plant sources increased by
Vitamin C
Meat in diet
Absorption is decreased by
Phytates (grain products)
Polyphenols (tea, coffee)
Other minerals (calcium, zinc)
Iron Deficiency Anemia
Public health concern in U.S. and around the
world.
Infants, children, pregnant and lactating
women most at risk.
Symptoms
hemoglobin concentration of blood
red blood cell size
Cognitive problems, poor growth, decreased
exercise tolerance.
Iron (Fe): Dietary Sources
Heme iron
Bound to a heme group
Shellfish, beef, poultry, organ meats
Makes up
Hemoglobin, myoglobin, cytochromes

Nonheme iron
Green leafy vegetables, mushrooms, legumes,
enriched grains
~85% of dietary iron
Bioavailability of Iron
Influenced by:
Form

Heme
Ferric
Ferrous
Iron status
Presence/absence of other dietary
components
Enhancers of Nonheme Iron
Bioavailability
Vitamin C & stomach acid
Convert ferric to ferrous iron

Meat factor
Compound in meat, poultry, seafood
Meat + nonheme iron
Inhibitors of Nonheme Iron
Bioavailability
Chelators

Phytates
In vegetables, grains, seeds
Polyphenols
Some vegetables, tea, coffee, red wine
Functions of Iron
Oxygen transport: hemoglobin

Iron reservoir: myoglobin

Cellular energy metabolism

Oxygen Transport: Hemoglobin
Most abundant
protein in red blood
cells
4 protein subunits +
4 iron-containing
heme groups
Delivers oxygen to
cells
Picks up carbon
dioxide
Iron Reservoir: Myoglobin
Found in muscle cells
Heme group + protein subunit
Releases oxygen to cells when needed
for:
ATP production
Muscle contraction
Cellular Energy Metabolism
Cytochromes
Heme-containing complexes
Function in electron transport chain
Allow conversion of ADP to ATP
Iron as cofactor
Electron transport chain
Citric acid cycle
Gluconeogensis
Other Roles of Iron
Cytochrome P450 enzymes

Cofactor for antioxidant enzymes

Protects DNA, cell membranes, proteins

Cofactor for enzyme to make DNA

Iron Deficiency
Most common nutritional deficiency

At-risk groups
Infants, growing children, pregnant women

Pica
Mild Iron Deficiency
Signs
Fatigue
Impaired physical work performance
Behavioral abnormalities
Impaired intellectual abilities in children
Body temperature regulation
Influences immune system
Severe Iron Deficiency: Iron-
Deficiency Anemia
Microcytic hypochromic anemia
Small, pale red blood cells
Inability to produce enough heme
Decreased ability to carry oxygen
Decreased ATP synthesis
Focus on Clinical Applications:
Measuring Iron Status
Serum ferritin concentration
< 12 micrograms/L
Total iron-binding capacity
> 400 micrograms/dL
Serum transferrin saturation
< 16%
Hemoglobin concentration
Men < 130 g/L Women < 120 g/L
Hematocrit
Men < 39% Women <36%
Basics of Iron Supplementation
Ferrous Iron
Best absorbed
Other terms:
Ferrous fumarte
Ferrous sulfate
Ferrous gluconate

Ferric Iron
Iron Toxicity
Medicinal or supplemental iron
Most common cause of childhood
poisoning
Symptoms
Vomiting, diarrhea, constipation, black
stools
Death
Excess deposited in liver, heart,
muscles
Special Recommendations for Vegetarians
& Endurance Athletes
Vegans
Needs are 80% higher
Iron supplements
Heme + nonheme iron foods
Endurance athletes
Increased blood loss in feces/urine
Chronic rupture of red blood cells in feet
Needs are 70% higher
Copper (Cu): Dietary Sources &
Bioavailability
Forms
Cupric
Cuprous
Organ meats, shellfish, whole-grain
products, mushrooms, nuts, legumes
Bioavailability decreases with
Antacids
Iron
Absorption, Metabolism, &
Regulation of Copper
Absorbed in small intestine & stomach
Influenced by Cu status
Ceruloplasmin
Excess incorporated into bile &
eliminated in feces
Functions of Copper
Cofactor for metalloenzymes in redox
reactions:
ATP production
Cytochrome c oxidase
Iron metabolism
Neural function
Antioxidant function
Superoxide dismutase
Connective tissue synthesis
Copper Deficiency & Toxicity
Deficiency
Hospitalized patients & preterm infants
Antacids
Signs & Symptoms
Defective connective tissue, anemia, neural
problems
Toxicity
Rare
Copper
Functions
Essential for normal absorption, transport
and mobilization of iron and hemoglobin
synthesis
Integral component of many enzymes
(e.g., cytochrome oxidase)
Stored in most tissues, especially liver
Copper Deficiency
Anemia
Depigmentation of hair or wool
Black sheep are sometimes kept as
indicators of marginal Cu deficiency
Loss of wool crimp (steely wool)
Bone disorders
Central nervous lesions with muscular
incoordination
Induced Copper Deficiency
Caused by relatively high levels of Mo
and/or S
Site of interaction is in the rumen
Formation of insoluble Cu salts including
sulfides and thiomolybdates
Net effect is decreased Cu absorption
Induced Copper Toxicity
Occurs with normal dietary levels of
Cu and low levels of Mo and S
Accumulates in liver
Sheep are more susceptible than cattle
or pigs
Iodine
Function
Essential component of
thyroid hormones
Important for regulation
of body temperature,
basal metabolic rate,
reproduction and
growth.
Regulation in body
Almost all is absorbed.
Excess removed in urine.
Dietary Sources
Seafoods
Milk/dairy products
Iodized salt
Iodine Deficiency
Goiter (less severe)
Enlarged thyroid gland due to bodys
attempt to increase thyroid hormone
production
Cretinism (more severe)
Severe iodine deficiency during
pregnancyserious problems in baby
Stunted growth, deaf, mute, mentally retarded.
 Iodine Deficiency Disorders
Cretinism Goiter
Absorption, Metabolism, &
Regulation of Iodine
Absorbed in small intestine & stomach
Taken up by thyroid gland
Thyroid-stimulating hormone regulates
uptake
Functions of Iodine
Component of:
Thyroxine (T4)
Triiodothyronine (T3)
Regulates energy metabolism, growth,
development
Signs of deficiency
Severe fatigue
Lethargy
Focus on Food: Iodine Deficiency &
Iodine Fortification of Salt

1920s Goiter Belt

Statewide campaigns
Started providing iodized salt to children
Goiter almost eliminated
Current Public Health working to
eradicate goiter internationally
Iodine Toxicity
Hypothyroidism
Hyperthyroidism
Formation of goiters
Absorption, Metabolism, &
Regulation of Selenium
Most Se enters blood
Incorporated into selenomethionine
Makes selenoproteins
Stored in muscles
Maintenance of Se through excretion in
urine
Functions of Selenium
Component of glutathione peroxidase
catalyzes removal of hydrogen peroxide

GSH + H2O2 GSSG + H2O

GSH = reduced glutathione
GSSG = oxidized glutathione
Component of iodothyronine-5- deiodinase
Converts T4 to T3
Improves killing ability of neutrophils
Reduces the prevalence and severity of mastitis
Selenium
Protects cells from autooxidative
damage
Shares this role with vitamin E
Important antioxidant
Deficiencies
White muscle disease in lambs and calves
Skeletal and cardiac myopathies
Exudative diathesis (hemorrhagic disease)
in chicks
Selenium Content of Soils
Selenium
Toxicity
Blind staggers or alkali disease
Range between minimum requirement and
maximum tolerable level is narrow
Supplementation must be done with care!
FDA regulations allow two forms of inorganic
Se (Na selenite and Na selenate) to be used
0.3 mg of supplemental Se/kg of DM is maximum
Organic form available
Selenium Deficiency & Toxicity
Deficiency
Keshan disease
Toxicity
Garlic-like odor of breath
Nausea
Vomiting
Diarrhea
Brittleness of teeth & fingernails
Chromium (Cr): Dietary Sources,
Bioavailability, & Regulation
Food content depends on soil
Whole grains, fruits/veg, processed
meats, beer, wine
Bioavailability affected by:
Vitamin C
Acidic medications
Antacids
Transported in blood to liver
Excess excreted in urine & feces
Functions of Chromium
Regulates insulin
Growth & development
Lab animals
Increases lean mass
Decreases fat mass
Ergogenic aid
Chromium picolinate
Chromium Deficiency & Toxicity
Deficiency
Hospitalized patients
Elevated blood glucose
Decreased insulin sensitivity
Weight loss
Toxicity
Rare
Industrially released chromium
Manganese (Mn): Dietary Sources &
Regulation

Whole grains, pineapples, nuts,

legumes, dark green leafy vegetables,
water
<10% absorbed
Excess incorporated into bile & excreted
in feces
Functions of Manganese
Cofactor for metalloenzymes
Gluconeogenesis
Bone formation

Energy metabolism

Cofactor for superoxide dismutase

Manganese Deficiency & Toxicity
Deficiency
Rare
Scaly skin, poor bone formation, growth
faltering
Toxicity
Rare
Mining
Liver disease
High water levels
Molybdenum (Mo): Dietary
Sources
Food content depends on soil
Legumes, grains, nuts
Absorbed in intestine
Circulated to liver via blood
Functions of Molybdenum
Redox reactions

Cofactor for several enzymes

Metabolism of:
Sulfur-containing amino acids
DNA & RNA

Detoxifying drugs in liver

Molybdenum Deficiency & Toxicity
Deficiency
Rare
Toxicity
No known effects in humans
Animals disrupts reproduction
Zinc (Zn): Dietary Sources &
Bioavailability
Bioavailability influenced by:
Phytates
Iron
Calcium
Animal sources
Acidic substances
Absorption, Metabolism, &
Regulation of Zinc
Requires proteins to:
Transport zinc into enterocyte
Metallothionine
Bind zinc within cell
Excess excreted in feces
Genetic influences
 Acrodermatitis Enteroathica
Zinc deficiency even
with adequate
amounts of dietary
zinc
Supplementation
Infants
Growth failure
Red/scaly skin
Diarrhea
Human Genome
Project
Functions of Zinc
Cofactor
RNA synthesis
Stabilizes proteins
that regulate gene
expression
Zinc fingers
Antioxidant
Stabilizes cell
membranes
Zinc Deficiency & Toxicity
Deficiency Toxicity
Decreases appetite Supplements
Increases morbidity Poor immune
Decreases growth function
Skin irritations, Depressed levels of
diarrhea, delayed HDL
sexual maturation Impaired copper
status
Nausea, vomiting,
loss of appetite
Fluoride
99% is found in
bones and teeth
Function
to promote
mineralization of
calcium and
phosphate.
Inhibits bacterial
growth in
mouthdecreases
cavity formation.
Fluoride (F-): Dietary Sources,
Bioavailability, & Regulation
Not an essential nutrient
Potatoes, tea, legumes, fish w/bones,
toothpaste, added to drinking water
American Dental Association
Fluoridation 1-2 ppm
Absorbed via small intestine
Circulates in blood to liver & then teeth &
bone
Excess excreted in urine
Functions of Fluoride
Part of bone & teeth matrix
Stimulates maturation of osteoblasts
Topical application decreases bacteria in
mouth
Fewer cavities
Fluoride Deficiency & Toxicity
Deficiency
None known
Toxicity
GI upset, excessive production of saliva,
watery eyes, heart problems, coma
Dental fluorosis
Skeletal fluorosis
Cobalt
Known since 1930s
that a wasting
disease was
associated with Co
deficiency in plants
and soils
Starved for glucose!
Vitamin B12 was
found to contain Co
Vitamin B12
Cobalt Deficient Areas of the US
Cobalt and Vitamin B12
Injection of Co-deficient sheep and
cattle with Vitamin B12 was as effective
as feeding Co in curing the disease
Injection of Co had no effect
Microbial synthesis of Vitamin B12 was
the key!
Functions of Cobalt and Vitamin B12
Essential coenzyme for
Propionate metabolism
methylmalonyl CoA to succinyl CoA
DNA synthesis
Bacterial synthesis of methionine
Other Trace Minerals
More research needed about:
Nickel

Aluminum

Silicon

Vanadium

Arsenic

Boron
 Referens
Harpers Ilustrated Biochemistry 27th ed.
(Robert K Murray, Daryl K. Granner, Victor W.
Rodwell, 2006)
Medical Biochemistry (John Baynes, Marek H
Dominiczak, 2005)
Color Atlas of Biochemistry (Koolman, 2005)
The Medical Biochemistry Page
(www.themedicalbiochemistrypage.org)
Konsultasi kuliah: Bagian Biokimia FK UNHAS
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