Definitions

The measurement subsystem in a control system contains

sensors and transducers that detect measurements and
convert them into acceptable signals- typically voltages.

• Sensor: A device for measuring some physical quantity

(mechanical, chemical, etc.) and transforms it into an
electrical signal, to be used as input of a control
system.
• Transducer: a transducer is a device that converts a
type of energy (mechanical, chemical, etc.) into electric
signals { or vice versa.
• Actuator is a device used to produce some actions on
the controlled physical system
 Example of sensors
• proximity : ultrasound, radar, capacitive sensor
• angular position : encoder, switch, potentiometer
• absolute position : GPS
• light level : photo cell, camera
• sound level : microphone
• deformation : strain gauge
• temperature : thermometer
• gravity : inclinometer (accelerometer)
• acceleration (linear) : accelerometer
• rotational speed : gyroscope
• contact : switch
• current : current transformer, Hall eect
• time : clock
Common Sensors and Transducers
 Types of Sensors
Active vs passive sensors
• Passive sensors: part or all the output power from the
sensor is provided by the sensor itself.
• Active sensors: an external source of energy must be
provided to power come sensor components input and
output signals may or may not have the same form of
energy.
type of output signal
• analog sensors: the output is an analog quantity, often a
variable voltage.
• Digital sensors: the output is a digitally encoded value. The
output is a voltage coding the two binary values (e.g. 0 if 0V
< v < 2:2V and 1 if 2:8V < v < 5V).
Thermocouple used to produce an Analogue Signal

Light Sensor used to produce an Digital Signal

 Signal conditioning
Signal conditioning can include amplification, filtering, converting, range matching, isolation to make sensor
output suitable for processing after conditioning.

Filtering is the most common signal conditioning function, as usually not all the signal frequency spectrum
contains valid data. The common example is 50/60 Hz AC power lines, present in most environments, which
cause noise if amplified.

Signal amplification : performs two important functions: increases the resolution of the input signal, and
increases its signal-to-noise ratio. For example, the output of an electronic temperature sensor, which is
probably in the millivolts range is probably too low for an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) to process directly
In this case it is necessary to bring the voltage level up to that required by the ADC.

Signal isolation :Is used to pass the signal from the source to the measuring device without a physical
connection, often used to isolate possible sources of signal perturbations. Magnetic or optic isolation can be
used.
 Proximity Sensors:
• Devices, including Photocells, Capacitance
sensors and Inductive sensors, that can be
used in areas that are near to but not directly
contacting an object to be sensed
• Like all sensors they use structured signal
sources, receive changes of state in their
energy (sensing) fields and interpret these
changes with signal changes to the “outside”
 Photo Sensors
• The modern photo sensor (in
the proximity range) emits
modulated light (at infrared
or near-infrared
wavelengths).
• The emitters are LED.
• The receivers
(phototransistors) are ‘tuned’
to be sensitive to the
wavelength of the source
emitter during the ‘on’ steps
in the modulated output
stream
• The interpreters are
(typically) transistors that
switch the power (or ground)
source on to the output lead
 Diffuse Mode Photosensor
• In proximity mode, the device is looking
for its own emitted beam reflected back
to its paired receiver
• The level of light falling on the receiver
to trigger positive response can be
‘tuned’ to the task
• The sensors can be tuned to “Light-
Operate” or “Dark-Operate”
• Light operate means positive output
when reflective light is sensed
• Dark operate means positive output
when NO reflective light is sensed
 Classification of Transducers
• Transducers may be classified according to their
application, method of energy conversion, nature of
the output signal, and so on.
•
Transducers

On The Basis of Transducers/

Active/Passive Primary/Secondary Analog/Digital
principle Used Inverse
Transducers
Capacitive

Inductive

Resistive
 Active Transducers
• Active transducers : do not need any external source of
power for their operation. Therefore they are also called as self
generating type transducers. As the output of active transducers we
get an equivalent electrical output signal e.g. temperature or strain
to electric potential, without any external source of energy being
used.
 Example of active transducers

• Piezoelectric Transducer- When an external

force is applied on to a quartz crystal, there will be a
change in the voltage generated across the surface.
This change is measured by its corresponding value
of sound or vibration.
 Passive Transducers
These transducers need external source of power for their
operation.
• A DC power supply or an audio frequency generator is
used as an external power source.
• These transducers produce the output signal in the form
of variation in electrical parameter like resistance,
capacitance or inductance. Examples – Thermistor,
Potentiometer type transducer
 Primary and Secondary Transducers
• The primary transducers deals with the physical
quantity to be measured. E.g the mechanical device
converts the physical quantity to be measured into a
mechanical signal.
• The electrical device then convert this mechanical
signal into a corresponding electrical signal. Such
electrical device are known as secondary transducers.
Example of Primary and secondary
transducer
Primary transducer

Displacement

voltage

Secondary transducer
 Photovoltaic Transduction:

• In photovoltaic transduction the measurements

is converted to voltage generated when the
junction between dissimilar material is
illuminated.
 Photoconductive Transduction:

• In photoconductive transduction the

measurements is converted to change in
resistance of semiconductor material by the
change in light incident on the material.
 Analog and Digital Transducers
Analog transducers:
• These transducers convert the input quantity into an
analog output which is a continuous function of time.
• Thus a strain gauge, an L.V.D.T., a thermocouple or a
thermistor may be called as Analog Transducers as they
give an output which is a continuous function of time.
Digital Transducers:
• These transducers convert the input quantity into an
electrical output which is in the form of pulses and its
output is represented by 0 and 1.
Transducer and Inverse Transducer
Transducer:
• Transducers convert non electrical quantity to
electrical quantity.
Inverse Transducer:
• Inverse transducers convert electrical quantity
to a non electrical quantity. A piezoelectric
crystal acts as an inverse transducer because
when a voltage is applied across its surfaces, it
changes its dimensions causing a mechanical
displacement.