Cellular Metabolism

Chapter 4
Cellular Metabolism

 Cellular metabolism refers to all of the

chemical processes that occur inside
living cells.
Energy

 Energy can exist in two states:

 Kinetic energy – energy of motion.
 Potential energy – stored energy.
 Chemical energy – potential energy stored in
bonds, released when bonds are broken.
 Energy can be transformed from one
state to another.
Energy
 The ultimate source
of energy for most
living things is the
sun.
Laws of Thermodynamics
 First law of thermodynamics – energy cannot
be created or destroyed – only transformed.
 Second law of thermodynamics – a closed
system moves toward entropy, increasing
disorder.
 Living systems are open systems that maintain
organization and increase it during development.
Free Energy

 Free energy – the energy available for

doing work.
 Most chemical reactions release free energy
– they are exergonic.
 Downhill
 Some reactions require the input of free
energy – they are endergonic.
 Uphill
Enzymes
 Bonds must be destabilized before any
reaction can occur – even exergonic.
 Activation energy must be supplied so that
the bond will break.
 Heat – increases rate at which molecules collide.
 Catalysts can lower activation energy.
Enzymes

 Catalysts are chemical substances that

speed up a reaction without affecting the
products.
 Catalysts are not used up or changed in
any way during the reaction.
 Enzymes are important catalysts in
living organisms.
Enzymes
 Enzymes reduce the
amount of activation
energy required for a
reaction to proceed.
 Enzymes are not
used up or altered.
 Products are not
altered.
 Energy released is
the same.
Enzymes

 Enzymes may be pure proteins or

proteins plus cofactors such as metallic
ions or coenzymes, organic group that
contain groups derived from vitamins.
Enzyme Function
 An enzyme works by binding with its
substrate, the molecule whose reaction is
catalyzed.
 The active site is the location on the enzyme
where the substrate fits.
 Enzyme + Substrate = ES complex.
Enzyme Specificity
 Enzymes are highly specific.
 There is an exact molecular fit between enzyme and
substrate.
 Some enzymes work with only one substrate, others
work with a group of molecules.
 Succinic dehydrogenase oxidizes only succinic acid.
 Proteases will act on any protein, although they still
have a specific point of attack.
Enzyme-Catalyzed Reactions
 Enzyme-catalyzed reactions are
reversible.
 Indicated by double arrows in reactions.
 Tend to go mostly in one direction.

 Reactions tend to be catalyzed by

different enzymes for each direction.
 Catabolic (degradation) reaction catalyzed
by enzyme A.
 Anabolic (synthesis) reaction catalyzed by
enzyme B.
Importance of ATP

 Endergonic reactions require energy to

proceed.
 Coupling an energy-requiring reaction
with an energy-yielding reaction can
drive endergonic reactions.
 ATP is the most common intermediate in
coupled reactions.
Importance of ATP
 ATP consists of
adenosine (adenine
+ ribose) and a
triphosphate group.
 The bonds between
the phosphate
groups are high
energy bonds.
 A-P~P~P
Importance of ATP
 Phosphates have
negative charges.
 Takes lots of
energy to hold 3 in
a row!
 Ready to spring
apart.
 So, ATP is very
reactive.
Oxidation – Reduction - Redox
 An atom that loses
an electron has been
oxidized. Oxygen is
a common electron
acceptor.
 An atom that gains
an electron has been
reduced. Higher
energy.
Redox Reactions

 Redox reactions always occur in pairs.

 One atom loses the electron, the other
gains the electron.
 Energy is transferred from one atom to
another via redox reactions.
Cellular Respiration

 Cellular respiration – the oxidation of

food molecules to obtain energy.
 Electrons are stripped away.
 Different from breathing (respiration).
Cellular Respiration

 Aerobicversus Anaerobic
Metabolism
 Heterotrophs
 Aerobes: Use molecular oxygen as the final
electron acceptor
 Anaerobes: Use other molecules as final

electron acceptor
 Energy yield much lower ATP yield
Aerobic Respiration

 In aerobic respiration, ATP forms as

electrons are harvested, transferred along
the electron transport chain and
eventually donated to O2 gas.
 Oxygen is required!
 Glucose is completely oxidized.

 C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy (heat

Glucose Oxygen Carbon Water or ATP)
Dioxide
Cellular Respiration - 3 Stages
 Food is digested to break it into
smaller pieces – no energy
production here.
 Glycolysis – coupled reactions used
to make ATP.
 Occurs in cytoplasm
 Doesn’t require O2
 Oxidation – harvests electrons and
uses their energy to power ATP
production.
 Only in mitochondria
 More powerful
Anaerobic Respiration

 Anaerobic respiration occurs in the

absence of oxygen.
 Different electron acceptors are used
instead of oxygen (sulfur, or nitrate).
 Sugars are not completely oxidized, so it
doesn’t generate as much ATP.
Glycolysis

 Glycolysis – the first stage in cellular

respiration.
 A series of enzyme catalyzed reactions.
 Glucose converted to pyruvic acid.

 Small number of ATPs made (2 per glucose

molecule), but it is possible in the absence
of oxygen.
 All living organisms use glycolysis.
Glycolysis

 Uphill portion primes the fuel with phosphates.

 Uses 2 ATPs
 Fuel is cleaved into 3-C sugars which undergo
oxidation.
 NAD+ accepts e-s & 1 H+ to produce NADH
 NADH serves as a carrier to move high energy e-s to
the final electron transport chain.
 Downhill portion produces 2 ATPs per 3-C sugar (4
total).
 Net production of 2 ATPs per glucose molecule.
Glycolysis
 Summary of the enzymatically catalyzed
reactions in glycolysis:

Glucose + 2ADP + 2Pi + 2 NAD+ 2 Pyruvic acid + 2 NADH + 4ATP

Harvesting Electrons from
Chemical Bonds
 When oxygen is available, a second
oxidative stage of cellular respiration
takes place.
 First step – oxidize the 3-carbon pyruvate
in the mitochondria forming Acetyl-CoA.
 Next, Acetyl-CoA is oxidized in the Krebs
cycle.
Producing Acetyl-CoA
 The 3-carbon pyruvate
loses a carbon
producing an acetyl
group.
 Electrons are transferred
to NAD+ forming NADH.
 The acetyl group
combines with CoA
forming Acetyl-CoA.
 Ready for use in Krebs
cycle.
The Krebs Cycle
 The Krebs cycle is the next stage in oxidative
respiration and takes place in the mitochondria.
 Acetyl-CoA joins cycle, binding to a 4-carbon
molecule to form a 6-carbon molecule.
 2 carbons removed as CO2, their electrons donated to
NAD+, 4-carbon molecules left.
 2 NADH produced.
 More electrons are extracted and the original 4-
carbon material is regenerated.
 1 ATP, 1 NADH, and 1 FADH2 produced.
The Krebs Cycle

 Each glucose provides 2 pyruvates,

therefore 2 turns of the Krebs cycle.
 Glucose is completely consumed during
cellular respiration.
The Krebs Cycle

Acetyl unit + 3 NAD+ + FAD + ADP + P

2 CO2 + 3 NADH + FADH2 + ATP
ACTIVITY

 One of the main reasons we eat is to

obtain our energy needs. Where does
the energy in food come from? Explain
your answer.
ANSWER

 From the sun.

 Glucose is the organic product of
photosynthesis, a process that is
powered by light energy. Hence, all living
things still depend directly or indirectly
on plants for food and, consequently, for
energy that the plant harnessed from the
sun.
Using Electrons to Make ATP
 NADH & FADH2 contain
energized electrons.
 NADH molecules carry
their electrons to the
inner mitochondrial
membrane where they
transfer electrons to a
series of membrane
bound proteins – the
electron transport
chain.
ETC
 couples a reaction between an electron
donor (such as NADH) and an electron
acceptor (such as O2) to the transfer of H+
ions across a membrane, through a set of
mediating biochemical reactions. These H+
ions are used to produce adenosine
triphosphate (ATP), the main energy
intermediate in living organisms, as they
move back across the membrane.
ETC
 I – Complex I (NADH coenzyme Q reductase)
 II – Complex II (Succinate dehydrogenase)
 III – Complex III (Cytochrome bc1 complex)
 IV – Complex IV (Cytochromoe c oxidase)

UQ – Ubiquinone
IMM – Mitochondrial Inner Membrane
Electrochemical Proton Gradient
Building an Electrochemical
Gradient
 In eukaryotes, aerobic metabolism takes
place in the mitochondria in virtually all
cells.
 The Krebs cycle occurs in the matrix, or
internal compartment of the
mitochondrion.
 Protons (H+) are pumped out of the
matrix into the intermembrane space.
Chemiosmosis

 is the diffusion of ions across a

selectively-permeable membrane. More
specifically, it relates to the generation of
ATP by the movement of hydrogen ions
across a membrane during cellular
respiration.
Producing ATP- Chemiosmosis
 A strong gradient with
many protons outside
the matrix and few
inside is set up.
 Protons are driven back
into the matrix.
 They must pass
through special
channels that will drive
synthesis of ATP.
QUIZ
1.It refers to the oxidation of food
molecules to obtain energy.
2.It is where Kreb cycle occurs.
3.A catalyst that accelerates chemical
reactions.
4.The first law of conservation of energy.
5.It is the diffusion of ions across a
selectively-permeable membrane.
QUIZ
6. The first stage in cellular respiration.
7. These are heterotrophs that use oxygen
as its final electron acceptor.
8. Type of respiration that occurs in the
absence of oxygen.
9. Main composition of an ATP molecule.
10. Type of reaction where energy is
released.
ANSWERS
1. Cellular Respiration
2. Mitochondria
3. Enzymes
4. “Energy cannot be created nor
destroyed”
5. Chemiosmosis
6. Glycolysis
7. Aerobes
8. Anaerobic Respiration
9. 3 Phosphates + Ribose + Adenine
10.Exergonic
Review of Cellular Respiration

 1 ATP generated for each proton pump

activated by the electron transport chain.
 NADH activates 3 pumps.
 FADH2 activates 2 pumps.

 The 2 NADH produced during glycolysis

must be transported across the
mitochondrial membrane using 2 ATP.
 Net ATP production = 4
Glucose + 2 ATP + 36 ADP + 36 Pi + 6 O2 6CO2 + 2 ADP + 36 ATP + 6 H2O
Fermentation

 In the absence of oxygen, the end-

product of glycolysis, pyruvate, is used
in fermentation.
 During glycolysis, all the NAD+ becomes
saturated with electrons (NADH). When this
happens, glycolysis will stop.
 2 NADH and 2 ATP produced.
 Pyruvate is used as the electron acceptor
resetting the NAD+ for use in glycolysis.
Fermentation – 2 Types
 Animals add extracted
electrons to pyruvate
forming lactate.
 Reversible when
oxygen becomes
available.
 Muscle fatigue
 Yeasts, single-celled
fungi, produce ethanol.
 Present in wine & beer.
 Alcoholic fermentation
Metabolism of Lipids
 Triglycerides are broken down into glycerol and 3 fatty
acid chains.
 Glycerol enters glycolysis.
 Fatty acids are oxidized and 2-C molecules break off
as acetyl-CoA.
 Oxidation of one 18-C stearic acid will net 146 ATP.
 Oxidation of three glucose (18 Cs) nets 108 ATP.
 Glycerol nets 22 ATP, so 1 triglyceride nets 462 ATP.
Metabolism of Proteins
 Proteins digested in the gut into amino acids
which are then absorbed into blood and
extracellular fluid.
 Excess proteins can serve as fuel like
carbohydrates and fats.
 Nitrogen is removed producing carbon
skeletons and ammonia.
 Carbon skeletons oxidized.
Metabolism of Proteins
 Ammonia is highly
toxic, but soluble.
 Can be excreted
by aquatic
organisms as
ammonia.
 Terrestrial
organisms must
detoxify it first.
Regulating Cellular Respiration
 Rate of cellular respiration slows down
when your cells have enough ATP.
 Enzymes that are important early in the
process have an allosteric (regulating)
site that will bind to ATP.
 When lots of ATP is present, it will bind
to this site, changing the shape of the
enzyme, halting cellular respiration.
Regulating Cellular Respiration
 Enzyme activity is controlled by presence or
absence of metabolites that cause
conformational changes in enzymes.
 Improves or decreases effectiveness as
catalyst.
Just for Fun!