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General Biology:
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Cell Membrane Micelle

- Skin for cells - Small hydrophobic tails

- Barrier that regulates what comes in - Small, single-layered sphere
and what comes out of the cell
- Semi-permeable or selectively
permeable
Phospholipids
- Has phosphate head (hydrophilic)
and fatty acid tails (hydrophobic)
- Head is polar and the tail is nonpolar
(ampiphilic)
Cholesterol
- Helps stabilize the membrane and
make it better at controlling what
can pass through it
- Another type of lipid that is
embedded among the phospholipids
of the membrane that helps to
Cell Membrane is a phospholipid bilayer minimize the effects of temperature
on fluidity
- Bi means 2
- At low temperatures, cholesterol
- Hydrophilic tails face each other
increases fluidity by keeping
while the hydrophobic heads face
phospholipids from packing tightly
the watery external environment
together, while at high
and cytoplasm
temperatures, it actually reduces
Liposome fluidity
- Bulkier hydrophobic tails
- Hollow droplet of bilayer membrane
 Integral Proteins
Protein
- Transport materials across the
membrane especially if the materials
can’t easily cross the phospholipid
bilayer
- Large molecules formed from long
chains of amino acids
- 2nd major component of the cell
membrane
Peripheral Proteins
Carbohydrates
- found on the outside and inside
surfaces of membranes, attached
either to integral proteins or to
phospholipids
- Sometimes act as enzymes to speed
up reactions or attaching to the
cytoskeleton structure
- tend to be more loosely attached
Transmembrane Proteins
- Proteins that extend all the way
across the membrane
- Go through the membrane or
integrated into the membrane
- Some integral membrane proteins
form a channel that allows ions or
other small molecules to pass, as
shown below.
- Since glucose molecules are too big
and polar for the phospholipid
bilayer, the integral proteins let it
through
- Sometimes is a cell receptor for it
stimulates signal and promote cell-
cell recognitions
- 3rd major component of the cell
membrane
- Cell identification
- Help you identify blood that belongs
to you and distinguish it from
foreign invaders
- form distinctive cellular markers,
sort of like molecular ID badges, that
allow cells to recognize each other
 Smaller molecules pass through the cell
membrane much easier
In summary:

Glycoproteins
- Protein that has a carbohydrate
attached to it
Glycolipid
- A phospholipid that has a
carbohydrate attached to it
- Together with glycoprotein is known
as glycocalyx
Fluid Mosaic Model
- Often what we use to describe the Aerobic Respiration
cell membrane C6H12O6 + 6O2  6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP
Glucose + Oxygen  Carbon Dioxide + Water + Energy

Cell Membrane has phospholipid bilayer, - A chemical process in which oxygen

A hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tail
Cell membrane is selectively permeable,
excretes wastes and keeps nutrients inside
to be absorbed
Proteins are used for transporting large and
charged molecules
Cholesterol regulates the fluidity of the cell
is used to make energy from
carbohydrates (sugars)
- is the process of producing cellular
energy in the presence of oxygen.
Glycolysis
- “Glucose splitting”
- Glyco – “glucose”; lysis – “to split”
- Prepares the sugar to access
hydrogen
- No oxygen is present, therefore it is
an anaerobic process
- Takes place in the cytoplasm
- Process of breaking down glucose to
produce energy

Carbohydrates are responsible for cell ATP

identification (parang id ng cell)
 - Adenosine Triphosphate (energy)
- Energy currency of the cell
NADH
- nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
(NAD) + hydrogen (H)
- co-enzyme that has ability to
transfer electron
NAD+
- nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
Hydrogen
- Bonds easily with other elements
- Sticks elements together very well
PROCESS
Net Yield: 2 NADH, 2 ATP, 2 pyruvates
Krebs Cycle
- Harvests hydrogens
- Also known as “citric acid cycle”
- Takes place in the mitochondrial
matrix
- Oxygen is present, therefore it is
aerobic
- completes the sugar-breaking
process begun in glycolysis and fuels
the generation of more ATP
- The pyruvate molecules oxidize to
form Acetyl (2C) then react with an
enzyme cofactor known as
Coenzyme-A to form Acetyl-CoA.
Acetyl-CoA eventually enters the
Krebs Cycle
Net Yield: 6NADH, 2 FADH2, 2ATP, 4 CO2

Dehydrogenased
- Takes off hyrdogens
Decarboxylased
- Takes off carbons
Co-Enzyme A
- responsible for transferring the
acetyl group from pyruvate
oxidation to oxaloacetate yielding
citrate
- basically, a transport mechanism
that acts as a wheelbarrow for
Acetyl
NAD
- hydrogen carriers that will take
hydrogens form NADH and deliver
the electrons to the electron
transport chain
FADH
- flavin adenine dinucleotide
Oxidative Phosphorylation
 Electron Transport Chain
 Chemiosmosis
- Takes place in the inner membrane
of the mitochondria
- The hydrogens produced in the
Krebs cycle are carried across the
electron transport chain by a specific
electron carrier molecule known as
NADH and FADH2 to produce ATP
molecules
Phospholipid Layer
- Embedded in this layer are large
protein channels called
CYTOCHROMES that will transfer
electrons and assist in the
production of ATP molecules
Electron Transport Chain
- generate an electrochemical
gradient and transfer electron from
one enzyme complex to another
until the electron is received by the
final acceptor (oxygen)
Chemiosmosis
- responsible for the production of
adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
Hydrogen
- provides the necessary energy in
making ATP
Oxygen
- final electron acceptor to make
water (H2O)
ATP Molecules
- energy that can be used for growth,
movement, or any of the life
processes that require energy
Fermentation adds a step at the end of
glycolysis to regenerate NAD+
FERMENTATION
- the metabolic process by which
organic molecules (normally
glucose) are converted into acids,
gases, or alcohol in the absence of
oxygen or any electron transport
chain.
- Can’t make as much ATP as aerobic
cellular respiration
- It is usually carried out by:
 Bacteria
 Archaea
 Yeast
 Muscle Cells
- The final electron acceptors are
either a pyruvate or a pyruvate
derivative

Alcoholic Fermentation
- Done by yeast or alcohol beverages
Lactic Acid Fermentation
- Done by muscle cells
- Muscle cells can shift from aerobic
respiration to lactic acid
fermentation if they experience
oxygen debt
- Also done by bacteria that are
involved in making yoghurt and the
lactic acid can contribute to its sour
taste
DIFFUSION
- A process in which the particles
move from an area of higher
concentration to lower
concentration
- perfume filling a whole room
- drop of food coloring to water
- movement of oxygen leaving the
alveoli to your blood and carbon
dioxide to enter the alveoli from the
blood
- occur in any mixture, might be one
that includes a semipermeable
membrane or not
- both solvent and solute particles are
free to move
OSMOSIS
- the movement of solvent particles
across a semipermeable membrane
from a dilute solution into a
concentrated solution
- red blood cells swelling up when
exposed to fresh water
- plant root hairs taking up water
- always occurs across a
semipermeable membrane
- movement of water or other
solvents
- only the solvent molecules (water
molecules) cross the membrane
SIMILARITIES
- equalize the concentration of two
solutions
- passive transport processes, which
means they do not require any input
of extra energy to occur
- particles move from an area of
higher concentration to one of lower
concentration
PASSIVE TRANSPORT
- a type of membrane transport that
does not require energy to move
substances across cell membranes.
- High conc.  low conc.
FACILITATED DIFFUSION
- High conc.  low conc.
- Needs protein channels to let
particles pass through because they
may be too large or have other
characteristics that prevent them
from directly travelling across a
selective membrane
- Sugar, amino acids & water
molecules (Aquaporins) go through
this VESICULAR TRANSPORT
- Water: aquaporins
Endocytosis
- GLUT4: glucose
- Sodium and Potassium: NaKATPase - Outside to inside
- AQP3: membrane protein transport - Requires vacuoles and ATP
(regulates dryness and skin - Done by bacteria and
moisture) macromolecules
- Engulf extracellular material
3 types of endocytosis
Phagocytosis
- To eat
- WBC looking for debris, bacteria,
and dead cells to eat
- Macrophage eating streptococcus
- The macrophage surrounds the
ACTIVE TRANSPORT strep by engulfing it through its
- Low conc.  high conc. Pseudopods
- Requires carrier proteins and ATP - The cell forms a phagosome
- Ions, sugar, and amino acids go
through this
- Sodium potassium pumps are great
example
 - The phagosome meets the lysosome
which contains digestive enzymes
and fuse together forming
PHAGOLYSOSOME
- The enzymes destroy the bacteria by
its acidic components

- The vesicle fuses with the endosome

that separates the LDL from the
receptors
- The vesicle splits, the endosome
that has the LDL fuses with the
lysosome for digestion and the
vesicle that has the receptors will go
Pinocytosis
back to the cell membrane (receptor
- The cell drinks recycling)
- Invaginates extracellular fluid then
forms a vesicle
- The motor proteins bring the vesicle
inside the cytoplasm with the use of
ATP

Exocytosis
Receptor-mediated endocytosis
- Pits with receptor proteins
- Clathrin link up together to form a
shell around the LDL
- Once the vesicle moves further in
the cytoplasm, the clathrin detaches
itself
- Inside to outside
- Requires cell vesicles and ATP
- Done by macromolecules
- Expel material into extracellular
space
- Starts with the golgi apparatus and
takes proteins, lipids, and hormones
produced by the RER and SER and
packages them into a vesicle which
 will be transported by the
cytoskeleton
HYPERTONIC SOLUTION
- Solution with higher solute
concentration
- Cell shrinks if put in a hypertonic
solution
- Too much of this causes flaccidity
ISOTONIC SOLUTION
- Stable or balance solution
- Example of this is saline solution
which contains sodium chloride for
about (0.9%)
HYPOTONIC SOLUTION
- Solution with lower solute
concentration
- Cells swell if put in a hypotonic
solution
- Too much of this causes turgidity
and causes some cells to burst
Organisms that use photosynthesis:
ENZYMES
- They act as protein catalysts that
speed biochemical reactions by
facilitating the molecular
rearrangements that support cell
function
Factors affecting the
activity of enzymes:
 concentration of enzyme:
concentration of enzyme increases,
the activity also increases
(proportional)
 temperature: normal body temp is
37 degrees Celsius (higher and lower
temp slows down enzyme)
 PH - acidity and alkalinity of
substances (6 acid; 7 alkaline) higher
and lower PH slows down the
activity of enzymes
 Inhibitors - recall cell cycle (slows
down the process of enzyme)
 substrate - any chemical of
biological substance which is being
consumed in the chemical reaction
by an enzyme to form products (Ex.
Carbohydrates, sugar, starch, →
[amylase and maltase]) (Amino
Acids, peptides, protein → for
enzymes trypsin and chymotripsin)
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
 Plants
 Algae
 Cyanobacteria
Heterotrophs - contains the DNA, ribosomes, and
enzymes
- organism that cannot produce its
own food, instead taking nutrition Thylakoid
from other sources of organic
- help absorb sunlight in order for
carbon, mainly plant or animal
photosynthesis to occur
matter
Stomata
Chemoautotrophs
- to take in carbon dioxide and release
- those that make their own food by
oxygen
chemosynthesis
Grana
Chemosynthesis
- stacks of thylakoids
- is a process by which some
organisms, such as certain bacteria,
use chemical energy to produce
carbohydrates.
Ecosystem
- a biological community of
interacting organisms and their
physical environment Light Dependent Reaction
Mesophyll - photolysis reaction
- middle layer of cells in the leaves - takes place in the presence of light
- contain chloroplasts, the organelles - takes place in the thylakoid
responsible for converting light membranes
energy into chemical energy.
Chloroplast Energy from the sun hits the chlorophyll in
- are membrane-bound organelles the thylakoid membranes
that act as the main centers for
photosynthesis
Water is split which releases oxygen as
Stroma waste gas (also answers the question in our
- colorless fluid surrounding the grana mastery as to why oxygen is both a reactant
within the chloroplast which and a product of photosynthesis) and also
provides volume around the releases hydrogen ions which is used to
different structures inside the make NADPH and ATP
chloroplast for protection
 The hydrogens go through ATP synthase,
providing energy to merge ADP + Pi to form
ATP

More in depth process: Final products are NADPH and ATP that will
be used in Calvin cycle

The light hits photosystem two and causes

the chlorophyll to vibrate

Electron moves to a higher energy state and

gets passed down in the electron transport
chain while losing some energy as it goes

The lost energy is used to pump hydrogen

Light Independent Reaction
ions across from the stroma into the lumen - calvin cycle
of the thylakoids - takes place in the stroma
- happens at night
- basically, taking carbon dioxide and
Final electron acceptor in this stage is adding RuBP to that molecule to
NADP+ which will be reduced to NADPH form glucose
(will be needed in the calvin cycle)
Takes carbon dioxide and uses energy from
ATP and NADP to produce glucose
Electron is replaced by photolysis of water,
splitting it and releases electrons to be
Starts with RuBP or Ribulose Bisphosphate
transferred again in the electron transport
and combines with carbon dioxide and
chain
forms a 6-carbon molecule

It also releases oxygen as waste

The 6-carbon molecule breaks down into 2
GP3 or Glycerate 3-phosphate
Adds hydrogens in the lumen causing
electrochemical gradient
GP3 will be converted into glyceraldehyde
3-phosphate or GALP by adding hydrogen
from NADPH to GP3 (the energy from ATP
will be used in this conversion)

GALP converts back into RuBP

BUTTTTT, not all GALP converts back to

RuBP, some of them turns into glucose
(which is the whole purpose of Youtube links:
photosynthesis, to produce glucose)
Cell membrane:

https://youtu.be/fJfTDc3WzQ8
More in depth information: https://youtu.be/qBCVVszQQNs

 Starts with RuBP (Ribulose Cellular Respiration:

Biphosphate) (5C)
 RuBP will combine with a carbon
dioxide molecule (6C) (unstable)
 The carbon dioxide came from the
stomata
 Breaks down into 2 GP3 each
consisting of 3 carbon molecules
 ATP from the LDR will deliver energy
that will assist the fusion of GP3 and
hydrogen and oxygen together
successfully, making it more stable
 ADP will be broken into ADP + P (but
the phosphorus will not bind with
GP3)
 NADPH will deliver its hydrogen to
fuse with GP3, forming GALP (3C and
1H)
 2 GALP can combine to form glucose
but some of GALP are used to
reform the RuBP (5C)
 The NADP and ADP+P will go back to
the LDR and re-energize and pick up
another hydrogen again.
https://you tu.be/eJ9Zjc-jdys
https://youtu.be/ZkqEno1r2jk
Fermentation:
https://youtu.be/YbdkbCU20_M
Diffusion:
https://youtu.be/jhszFBtBPoI
Osmosis:
https://youtu.be/L-osEc07vMs
Cell Transport:
https://youtu.be/Ptmlvtei8hw
Vesicular Transport:
https://youtu.be/HMbNAKUX3i4
Leaf Structure:
https://youtu.be/HxoAAmFT5A4
Chloroplast:
https://youtu.be/jTnNGIx5-P8
Light Dependent and Independent Reactions:
https://youtu.be/PFbYpsUV-4c

https://youtu.be/xA6qN1m9Bes