LECTURE 2: CELL

OBJECTIVES:
 Define cells
 List three major regions of a
generalized cell and their functions

HISTORY:
ROBERT HOOKE
- First who observed plant cells with
crude microscope in late 1600’s
MATTHIAS SCHLEIDEN and THEODOR SCHWANN
- Proposed that all living things are
composed of cells
RUDOLF VIRCHOW
- “Cells arise only from other cells”

CELL THEORY STRUCTURE OF PLASMA MEMBRANE:

1. Cell is the basic structural and
functional unit of living organism
2. Activity of an organism depends on
both the individual and the
collective activities of its cells
3. The biochemical activities of the
cells are dictated by their shapes
or forms, and by the relative number
of their specific subcellular shape
4. Continuity of life from one
generation to another has a cellular
basis
PLASMA MEMBRANE
- Refer’s to cell surface or outer
limiting membrane
- Sandwich like structure
- is a dynamic fluid structure in
constant flux.
2 MAJOR FLUID COMPARTMENTS
A. Intracellular fluid
B. Extracellular fluid

CELL
– smallest living unit
- composed chiefly of carbon, hydrogen,
nitrogen, oxygen, and trace amounts of
several other elements

3 MAIN PARTS OF HUMAN CELL

1. Plasma membrane
- Outer boundary of the cell
2. Cytoplasm
- Intracellular fluid packed with
organells
- Small structures that perform
specific cell functions
3. Nucleus
- An organelle that controls
cellular activities FLUID MOSAIC MODEL:
- Typically lies near the cells 1. Membrane lipids
center - the lipid bilayer forms the basic fabric
Ex: of the membrane.
- it is construcyed largely of
phospholipids with smaller amounts of
glycolipids, cholesterol, and lipid rafts
- plasma membrane is composed of two
parallel sheets of phopholipids molecules
lying tail to tail.

Phospholipids
- each lollipop-shaped phospholipid
molecule has a polar “head” that is charge
and uncharged “tail”.
Head - hydrophilic, lie on the inner
and outer surface of the membrane.
Tail - hydrophobic, lie on the center
of the membrane.
- has self-orienting property

Glycolipids
- 5% of total membrane lipids
- lipids with attached sugar groups.
- found only on the outer plasma
membrane surface.
Cholesterol
- Account for 20% of membrane lipid
Hydroxyl group - Polar region
Ring system - non-polar group
Membrane Proteins
- proteins make up about half of the
plasma membrane by mass
- responsible for most of the
specialized membrane functions
2 Distinct populations of membrane
proteins
A. Integral CHON
B. Peripheral CHON
A. Integral CHONS
- firmly inserted into the lipid bilayer
- Some protrude from one membrane face
only,but most are transmembrane
proteinsthat span the entire
membraneandprotrude on both sides.
Transmembranous CHON
- Involve in transport, serves as
channels and act as carriers.
- Some are enzymes, receptors for
hormones and other is involve in
signal transduction.
B. Peripheral CHON
- are not embedded in the lipid bilayer
- attach loosely to integral proteins
- easily removed without disrupting the
membrane
- some are enzymes and others are motor
proteins involve in mechanical
functions.
LIPID RAFTS
- contributes to the 20% of the outer
membrane surface
- dynamic assemblies of saturated
phospholipids associated with unique
lipids called sphingolipids and lots of
cholesterol.
- serves as a concentrating flatforms
for certain receptor molecules or
protein molecules needed for cell
signaling.
Glycocalyx
- fuzzy, sticky and carbohydrate rich
area at the cell surface.
- is enriched both by glycolipids and by
glycoproteins secreted by the cell
- provides a highly specific biological
markers.
Cell Junctions
- Most important factor securing
Cells together
3 Factors act to bind cells together
1. Glycoproteins in the glycocalyx act
as an adhesive
2. Wavy contours of the membranes of
adjacent cells fit togetherin a tongue-
and-groove fashion.
3 . Special cell junctions form
Tight Junctions
- a series of integral proteinmolecules
in the plasma membranes of adjacentcells
fuse together.
- help prevent molecules from passing
through the extra-cellular space between
adjacent cells.
Desmosomes
- anchoring junctions
- bind neighbororing cells together and
contribute to a continuous internal
network of strong “guy-wires”.
- the arrangement distributes tension
throughout a cellular sheet and reduces
the chance of tearing when it is
sugjected to pulling forces.
Plaque – Button-like thickening on the
cytoplasmic face of each plasma
membrane.
Gap Junctions (Nexus)
- is a communicating junction between
adjacent cells.
- present in electrically excitable
tissues such as heart and smooth muscle.
Connexons–a hollow cylinders that
connects the cells in the adjacent
plasma membranes.
Plasma membrane
- selectively permeable barrier
- substance move through the plasma
membrane essentially in 2 ways.
Interstitial fluid
- Contains thousands of ingredients,
including amino acids, sugars, fatty
acids, vitamins, regulatorysubstances
such as hormones and
neurotransmitters.
A. Passive
- substances cross the membrane w/o any
energy input from the cell
1. Diffusion
- tendency of molecules or ions to move
from an area where they are in higher
concentration that is down or along
their concentration gradient.
a. Simple diffusion
b. Facilitated diffusion
Osmosis
–the diffusion of water, through a
selectively permeable membrane.
- occurs whenever the water
concentration differs on the two sides
of a membrane.
Osmolarity
- refers to the total concentration of
all solute particles in a solution.
Hydrostatic pressure
- back pressure exerted by water against
the membrane
Oncotic pressure
- the tendency of water to move into the
cell by osmosis
Tonicity
- refers to the ability of a solution to
change the shape or tone of cells by
altering the cell’s internal water
volume.
a. Isotonic
- solutions have the same concentrations
of non-penetrating solutes as those
found in cells.
b. Hypertonic (Shrink)
- solutions have higher concentration of
non-penetrating solutes than seen in the
cell
c. Hypotonic (Burst)
- solutions contain lower concentration
of penetrating solutes than cells.
B. Active
- cells provides the metabolic energy
needed to move substances across the
membrane.
2 Type of transport process according to
the source of energy
1. Primary transport
- energy comes directly from hydrolysis
of ATP
Ex. Calcium and hydrogen pumps, sodium-
potassium pump
2. Secondary transport
- energy indirectly comes from energy
stored in ionic gradients
Ex. Na-K pump
C. Vesicular transport
- moves substance in and out of the cell
a. Transcytosis – moving substances
into, across, and then out of the cell
b. Vesicular trafficking – moving
substances from one area in the cell to
another
Endocytosis – into the cell
Exocytosis – out of the cell
Phagocytosis (cell-eating)
- cell engulfs relatively large or solid
material such as bacteria, cell debris
or inanimate particles.
Pinocytosis (cell-drinking)
- “Fluid-phase endocytosis”
- uptake of fluid and dissolved
substances by a cell by invagination and
pinching off of the cell membrane
Receptor-mediated endocytosis
- extracellular substances bind to
specific receptor proteins, enabling the
cell to ingest and concentrate specific
substances in protein coted vesicles.
 Resting membrane potential
- voltage across the membrane
Voltage – is electrical potential energy
resulting from the separation of
oppositely charged particles.
(DRAW THE PROCESS OF RMP)
Cell adhesion molecules
- found on almost every cell in the body
- plays key role in embryonic
development, wound repair and in
immunity.
Functions of CAMs
1. The molecular “Velcro” that cells use to
anchor themselves to molecules in the
extracellular space and to each other
2. The “arms” that migrating cells use to haul
themselves past one another
3. SOS signals sticking out from the blood
vessel lining that rally protective white
blood cells to a nearby infected or injured
area
4. Mechanical sensors that respond to changes
in local tension or fluid movement at the cell
surface by stimulating synthesis ordegradation
of adhesive membrane (tight)junctions
5. Transmitters of intracellular signals that
direct cell migration, proliferation, and
specialization
Roles of Plasma membrane receptors
Plasma receptors
- Integral proteins and glycoproteins that
serves as binding sites
- when a ligand binds to a membrane receptor,
the receptor’s structure changes, and the cell
proteins are altered
Functions of Plasma membrane receptors:
1. Contact signaling
- cells can recognize one another
2. Chemical signaling
- most plasma membrane are involved in
chemical signaling
LIGANDS – chemicals that bind specifically to
plasma membrane receptors
Ex. Neurotransmitters, hormones, and
paracrines.
3. Electrical signaling
- plasma membrane proteins are channel
proteins that respond to changes in membrane
potential by opening or closing the channel
Cytoplasm
- cellular material between the plasma
membrane and the nucleus
- site of most cellular activities
- consist of 3 major elements
a. Cytosol
b. organelles
c. Inclusions
Cytosol
- viscous, semitransparent fluid in which the
other cytoplasmic elements are suspended
- largely water, proteins, salts, sugars, and
other solutes
- It is a complex mixture with properties of
both a colloid and true solution
Organelles
- metabolic machinery of the cell
- synthesize protein
- specialized cellular compartments
(Compartmentalization)
- maintain the life of the cell
A. Membranous organelles
Ex. Peroxisomes, lysosomes, ER, and Golgi
apparatus
B. Non-membranous organelles
Ex. Cytoskeleton, centrioles, and ribosomes
Mitochondria
- threadlike, lozenge-shaped membranous
organelles.
- “power plant of cell” (Provides ATP supply)
- involve in aerobic cellular respiration
- contain their own DNA, RNA and ribosomes
Ribosomes
- small, dark-staining granules composed of
proteins and variety of RNAs
- “site of protein synthesis”
- each ribosome has 2 globular subunits that
fit together like a body and cap of an acorn.
2 Ribosomal populations appear to divide the
chore of protein synthesis:
1. Free ribosomes
- float freely in the cytoplasm
- make soluble proteins that function in the
cytosol
2. Membrane-bound ribosomes
- attached to membranes forming a complex
- synthesize proteins destined either for
incorporation into cell membranes or lysosomes
Endoplasmic reticulum
- “network between cytoplasm”
- is an extensive system of interconnected
tubes and parallel membranes enclosing fluid
filled cavities
a. Rough ER
- external surface is studded with ribosomes
- its ribosomes manufacture all CHONs secreted
from cells
- abundant in most secretory cells, antibody-
producing cells and liver cells.
- cell’s membrane factory
- manufacture integral proteins and
phospholipids
b. Smooth ER
- consist of tubules arranged in a looping
network
- its enzyme is not involve in protein
synthesis
Functions of the enzyme produce by smooth ER:
1. Metabolizes lipids, synthesize cholesterol
and synthesize the lipid components of
lipoproteins
2. Synthesize steroid-based hormones such as
sex hormones
3. Absorb, synthesize and transport fats
4. Detoxify drugs, certain pesticides and
cancer-causing chemicals
5. Break down stored glycogen to from free
glucose
Golgi apparatus
- consist of stacked and flattened membranous
sacs shaped like hollow dinner plates
- associated with swarms of tiny membranous
vesicles
- principal “traffic director” for cellular
proteins
- major function is to modify, concentrate and
package the proteins and lipids
Peroxisomes
- spherical membranous sacs containing a
variety of powerful enzyme (oxidase and
catalase)
Oxidase
- detoxify harmful substances
- neutralize free radicals
Lysosomes
- “Disintegrator bodies”
- “demolition crew”
- born as endosome which contain inactive
enzymes
- spherical membranous organelles containing
activated digestive enzymes
- large abundant in phagocytes
- work best in acidic conditions (Acid
hydrolases).
FUNCTIONS OF LYSOSOMES
1. Digesting particles taken in by
endocytosis, particularly ingested bacteria,
viruses, and toxins
2. Degrading worn-out or nonfunctional
organelles 3. Performing metabolic functions,
such as glycogen breakdown and release
4. Breaking down nonuseful tissues, such as
the webs betweenthe fingers and toes of a
developing fetus and the uterine lining during
menstruation
5. Breaking down bone to release calcium ions
into the blood
AUTOLYSIS
- a process where cell digest itself when
lysosome ruptures
Inclusions
- chemical substance that differ in every cell
type
Ex. Glycogen granules (Liver and muscle cell),
Lipid droplets (Fat cells), and Melanin
granules (Skin and hair cells).
ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM
- a system of organelles that work together
mainly to:
(1) produce, degrade,store, and export
biological molecules,
(2) degradepotentially harmfulsubstances.
- it includes the ER, Golgi apparatus,
secretory vesicles, lysosomes and nuclear
membrane.
Cytoskeleton
- “cell skeleton”
- an elaborate network of rods running
through the cytosol and hundreds of
accessory proteins
- links different structure
- it acts as a cell’s bone, muscle and
ligaments by supporting cellular
structures and movement.
3 TYPES OF ROD IN CYTOSKELETON
1. Microfilaments
2. Intermediate filaments
3. Microtubules
1. Microfilaments
- thinnest elements of the cytoskeleton
- semiflexible strands of the protein
- involved in cell otility
TERMINAL WEB
– fairly dense cross-linked network of
microfilaments arrangement of
microfilaments.
- strengthen the cell surface
- resist compression
- transmit force during cellular
movements and shape change
2. Intermediate filaments
- tough, insoluble protein fibers that
resemble woven ropes
- made of twisted unit of tetramer
- have a diameter between those
microfilaments and microtubules
- most stable and permanent of
cytoskeletal element and have high
tensile strength
- attached to desmosome
- act as internal guy-wires to resist
pulling forces exerted on the cell
3. Microtubules
- elements with the largest diameter
- hollow tubes made of spherical protein
subunits (tubulins)
- radiate from a small region of
cytoplasm near the nucleus (Centrosome)
Centrosomes and centrioles
Centrosomes: “organizing center”
Centrosome matrix
- is best known for generating
microtubules and organizing the mitotic
spindle in cell division
Cilia
- whip-like structure
- motile cellular extensions
- propel other substance across a cell’s
surface
Nucleoli (“little nuceli”)
- dark-staining spherical bodies
- found within the nucleus where
ribosomal subunits are assembled.
- large in growing cells that are making
large amounts of proteins
- associated with nucleolar organizer
regions responsible for the synthesis of
rRNA.

Flagella
- projections formed by centrioles but
longer than flagella
- propels the cell itself
SPERM – the only flagellated cell in the
human body
BASAL BODIES
- centrioles forming the bases of cilia
and flagella
Microvilli
- “little shaggy hair”
- minute, fingerlike extensions of the
plasma membrane that project from an
exposed cell surface
- it increase the plasma membrane
surface area tremendously
- most often found on the surface of
absorptive cells
Chromatin
- fine, unevenly stained network
Nucleosomes
– fundamental units of chromatin
- consist of flattened disc-shape cores
of eight histone proteins connected like
beads on a string by a DNA
COMPOSITION OF CHROMATIN
1. DNA – 30%
2. Globular histone CHONs – 60%
- provide a physical means for packing
the very long DNA molecules
- gene regulation
3. RNA chains – 10%
THANK YOU

Nucleus (“kernel”)
- “Control center”
- average size of 5 um in diameter
- Its shape conforms to the shape of the
cell
- it contains the instructions needed to
build nearly all the body’s proteins
- it dictates the kinds and amounts of
proteins to be synthesized
- cell contains only 1 nucleus for some
exception:
-
MULTINUCLEATED CELL
1. Muscle cell
2. Bone destruction cells
3. Liver cells
ANUCLEATED
- Mature RBC
- w/o nucleus cells cannot produce
mRNA to make proteins

3 Recognizable structure of nucleus:

1. Nuclear envelope
2. Nucleoli
3. Chromatin

NUCLEAR ENVELOPE
- a double membrane barrier separated by
a fluid-filled space
- selectively permeable
- it encloses a jellylike fluid in which
other nuclear elements are suspended
OUTER NUCLEAR MEMBRANE
– continuous with the rough ER of the
cytoplasm
- studded with ribosomes on the external
face
INNER NUCLEAR MEMBRANE
- lined by the nuclear lamina that
maintains the shape of the nucleus
- act as a scaffold to organize DNA in
the nucleus