Chapter Two

Rainfall-Runoff Relationships

1
 Hydrological Models
The objective of hydrologic system analysis is to study the
system operation and predict its output.

A-hydrologic system model is an approximation of the

actual system: its inputs and outputs are measurable
hydrologic variables and its structure is a set of equations
linking the inputs and outputs

Figure 2.1The watershed hydrologic system2

 Hydrological Models
The two classical types of hydrological models are the
deterministic and the stochastic types.

Figure 2.2: Classification of hydrological models according to

process description 3
 Hydrological Models
• A deterministic model does not consider randomness;
given input always produces the same output.

• A stochastic model has outputs that are at least

partially random.

• One might say that deterministic models make

forecasts while stochastic models make predictions.

• Although all hydrologic phenomena involve some

randomness, the resulting variability in the output may
be quite small when compared to the variability
resulting from known factors. In such cases, a
4
deterministic model is appropriate
 Hydrological Models
• . If the random variation is large, a stochastic model
is more suitable. Because the actual output could be
quite different from the single value deterministic model
would produce.

• At the middle level of the tree in Fig. 2.2, the

treatment of spatial variation is decided. Hydrologic
phenomena vary in all three space dimensions, but
explicitly accounting for all of this variation may make
the model too cumbersome for practical application.

• In a deterministic lumped model, the system is

spatially averaged or regarded as a single point in
space without dimensions. 5
 Hydrological Models
• For example, many models of the rainfall-runoff
process shown in Fig. 2.2 treat the precipitation input
as uniform over the watershed and ignore the internal
spatial variation of watershed flow.

• In contrast, a deterministic distributed model considers

the hydrologic processes taking place at various points
in space and defines the model variables as functions
of the space dimensions.

• Stochastic models are classified as space-independent

or space-correlated according to whether or not
random variables at different points in space influence
each other. 6
 Hydrological Models
• At the third level of the tree, time variability is
considered. Deterministic models are classified as
steady-flow (the flow rate not changing with time) or
unsteady-flow models.

• Stochastic models always have outputs that are variable

in time, they may be classified as time-independent or
time-correlated; time independent model represents a
sequence of hydrologic events that do not influence
each other.

• While a time-correlated model represents a sequence

in which the next event is partially influenced by the
current one and possibly by others in the sequence.
7
 The simplest case, (a), is a
deterministic lumped steady-flow
model. The inflow and outflow are
equal and constant in time, as
shown by the equally sized dots on
the lines at x = 0 and x = L.

(c). is a deterministic distributed

unsteady-flow model; here,
variation along the space axis is
also shown and the flow rate
calculated for a mesh of points in
space and time.
(b) Is a deterministic lumped unsteady-
flow model. The inflow I (t) and outflow Q
(t) are now allowed to vary in time, as
shown by the varying sized dots at x= 0
and x=L. A lumped model does not
illuminate the variation in space between
the ends of the channel section so no dots
are shown there

(d), randomness is introduced. The system output is

shown not as a single-valued dot, but as a distribution
assigning a probability of occurrence to each possible value
of the variable. This is a stochastic space-independent time-
independent model where the probability8 distribution is the
same at every point in the space time plane and values at
one point do not influence values elsewhere
 2.2 Rational Method
One of the most commonly used for the calculation
of peak flow from small areas is the rational formula
given as:

Where, Qp = peak flow (m3/s)

C = dimensionless runoff coefficient
i(tc,p) = the mean intensity of
precipitation (mm/h) for a duration equal to tc and an
exceedence probability p
A = drainage area in Km2 9
Assumptions inherent in the Rational Formula are as
follows:
• The peak flow occurs when the entire watershed is contributing to the
flow
• The rainfall intensity is the same over the entire drainage area
• The rainfall intensity is uniform over time duration equal to the time of
concentration, tc. the time of concentration is the time
required for water to travel from the hydraulically most remote point of
the basin to the point of interest
• The frequency of the computed peak flow is the same as that of the
rainfall intensity, i.e., the 10-yr rainfall intensity is assumed to produce
the 10-yr peak flow
• The coefficient of runoff is the same for all storms of all recurrence
probabilities
 Because of these inherent assumptions, the Rational Formula should
only be applied to drainage areas smaller than 80 ha.
10
 2.2.1Runoff Coefficient
The ground cover and a host of other hydrologic abstraction
considerably affect the coefficient.

The Values of C vary from 0.05 for flat sandy areas to 0.95 for
impervious urban surfaces, and considerable knowledge of the
catchment is needed in order to estimate an acceptable value.

The coefficient of runoff also varies for different storms on the

same catchment, and thus, using an average value for C, gives only
a rough estimate of Qp in small uniform urban areas.

11
On top of this the Rational Formula has been used for
many years as a basis for engineering design for small
land drainage schemes and storm-water channels.

If the basin contains varying amount of different land

cover or other abstractions, a coefficient can be
calculated through areal weighing as shown in
equation (below). Typical values are given in table 2.1
below.

Where x = subscript designating values for incremental areas

with consistent land cover
Table 2.1: Runoff coefficients for Rational formula
13
Rainfall intensity
Rainfall intensity, duration curve and
frequency curves are necessary to
use the rational method. Regional IDF
curves need to be developed for the
catchment in question.
 Higher values are usually appropriate for steeply
sloped areas and longer return periods because
infiltration and other losses have a proportionally
smaller effect on runoff in these cases

14
Figure 2.2: Example of IDF Curve
15
 2.2.3 Time of Concentration
tc is the time of concentration, the time required
for rain falling at the farthest point of the catchment
to flow to the measuring point of the river.

Thus, after time tc from the commencement of rain, the whole of the
catchment is taken to be contributing to the flow.

 The value of i, the mean intensity, assumed that the rate of

rainfall is constant during tc, and that all the measured rainfall
over the catchment area contributes to the peak flow.

The peak flow Qp occurs after the period tc.

16
There are a number of methods that can
be used to estimate time of
concentration (tc), some of which are
intended to calculate the flow velocity
within individual segments of the flow path
(e.g. shallow concentrated flow, open
channel flow, etc.)

the time of concentration can be

calculated as the sum of the travel times
within the various consecutive flow
segments. 17
18
Open Channel and pipe flow velocity: Flow in gullies
empties in to channels or pipes. Open channel flow is
assumed to begin where the stream follows and
defined path and becomes visible/ significant.
Manning’s equation can be used to estimate average
flow velocities in pipe and open channels

Where:
20
21
Example 2.1:

Solution: 22
Example 2.2:
23
ZM JUL'05 RUNOFF & HYDROGRAPH 24
25
2.2 SCS Curve Number
Method

26
27
28
Example 2.4:
29
30
Table 2.6: Adjustment factor (Fp) for pond and swamp areas
that are spread throughout the watershed
31
32
33
How do you present
runoff data?

You present runoff data in a

form of a Hydrograph!

34
 HYDROGRAPH
• Hydrograph is a plot of flow (discharge) in a
stream with time.

Time, t
35
• Types of hydrographs:
i. Annual Hydrograph:
Variation of daily or weekly or 10 daily mean flows
over the daily.

ii. Monthly Hydrograph:

Variation of daily mean flows over the daily.

iii. Seasonal Hydrograph:

Variation of the discharge in a particular season,
e.g. monsoon or dry season.

iv. Flood Hydrograph or Hydrograph:

A hydrograph that shows streamflows in a
watershed during the occurrence of storms.
36
INTRODUCTION
• A hydrograph is a plot of flow (Q) against
time (t). Also known as storm hydrograph,
flood hydrograph or hydrograph.

• It is the most widely method used of

analyzing surface runoff. Hydrograph
analysis is often combined with rainfall
analysis to investigate how a watershed
responds to rainfall.

37
• Hydrograph is plotted by measuring the
runoff at the watershed outlet/stream
gauging station.

• The area beneath a hydrograph between

any two points in time gives the total
volume of water passing the point of
interest during the time interval.

38
COMPONENTS OF A HYDROGRAPH

Essential Components:
i. Rising Limb
ii. Crest Segment
iii. Recession/Falling Limb

Other components:
tpk = Time to peak (starts from point A)
tL = Lag time, time interval from the centre of mass
of rainfall to the centre of mass of hydrograph
tB = Time base of the hydrograph
 Lag Time, tL

Rainfall
QP

B  C
tr

 
A D

tpk
tB

Time (hr)
40
i. Rising Limb AB. Point A, the starting point of the
rising curve and point B, the point of inflection;
• It represents the increase in Q due to the
gradual building up of storage in channels
and over the watershed surface.
• Initial losses and high infiltration losses
cause Q to rise rather slowly in the initial
periods.
• As storm continues, more and more flow
from distant parts reach the watershed
outlet.
• Watershed and storm characteristics
control the shape of the rising limb of a
hydrograph.
41
ii. Crest Segment BC. Between the two points of
inflection with a peak P in between;
– It represents the peak flows that occurs when
the runoff from all parts of the watershed
contributes to maximum amount of flow at the
outlet.

42
iii. Recession/Falling Limb or depletioncurve CD.
Starting from the second point of inflection C;
– It represents withdrawal of water from the
storage built up in the watershed during
earlier phrases of the hydrograph.

– Depletion of storage takes place after the

cessation of rainfall, shape of this limb
depends entirely on watershed
characteristics.

43
 FACTORS AFFECTING FLOOD HYDROGRAPH

Physiographic Factors

Basin Characteristics
Shape, size, slope, nature of the valley, elevation, drainage density

Infiltration Characteristics
Land use and cover, soil type and geological conditions, lakes, swamps and
other storage

Channel Characteristics
Cross-section, roughness and storage capacity

44
 Climatic Factors
Storm Characteristics
Precipitation, intensity, duration, magnitude and movement
of storm

Initial loss

Evapotranspiration

45
 What contributes to a Hydrograph?
• The hydrograph is the response of a given
watershed to the rainfall inputs.

• These inputs are:

1. Surface runoff (Overland flow)

2. Interflow

3. Groundwater flows or base flow

46
 Hydrograph
RUNOFF & HYDROGRAPH 47
48
 BASE FLOW SEPARATION

• As mentioned earlier, a hydrograph consists of 3

sources – surface runoff, interflow and base flow.
• In most cases, it is not easy to estimate the
actual amount of base flow that contributes to
the watershed.
• Therefore, one way to do this is to assume and
separate the base flow components from the
hydrograph.

49
• There are 3 methods of base flow separation:
– Method I – Straight Line Method
– Method II
– Method III

• The surface runoff hydrograph obtained after the

base flow separation is called ‘Direct Runoff
Hydrograph’ (DRH).

50
 Method I
• A straight line is joined from the beginning of the
surface runoff (point A) to a point on the
recession limb representing the end of the direct
runoff (point B).
• Point A is identified in view of the sharp change in
the curve but point B is slightly hard to locate.
Therefore, point B is estimated by using,
N = 0.83 A 0.2
where, A is the watershed area (km2) and N (days)
is measured from Qpeak.

51
 Qp N days

Discharge

A B
 

Time
Method I
52
 Method II
• This method projects the initial base flow curve
from point A to C, which lies directly below the
peak rate of flow. Later, point C is joined to point
B by a straight line.

53
 Qp

Discharge

A B
 

C

Time
Method II
54
 Method III
• The base flow recession curve after the
depletion of the flood water is extended
backwards till it intersects the ordinate at the
point of inflection, Pi . Points A and F are joined
by arbitrary smooth curve while points F and E
are joined by a straight line.

55
Discharge 
Pi

F

A
 E


Time
Method III
56
 Peak N days

Discharge 
Pi

III
F

A B
  E

 I
C II

Time

Base Flow Separation Methods

RUNOFF & HYDROGRAPH 57
 DR Volume Calculation
Discharge (m3/s)

Q3

Q2 Qn-1
Q1 Qn

t1 t2 tn-1 tn Time

1 1 1 1 1 
Vexcess  t  Q1  (Q1  Q2 )  (Q2  Q3 )  ...  (Qn 1  Qn )  (Qn )
2 2 2 2 2 
58
 EFFECTIVE RAINFALL

• Effective Rainfall Hyetograph (ERH) is defined by

subtracting the initial losses and infiltration
losses from a hyetograph of the rainfall.

• ERH is also known as hyetograph of rainfall

excess or supra rainfall.

59
Calculation for Total Amount of ER

i
P2

P1 Pn
t
0 t1 t2 tn

Total Amount of ER = t [P1+ P2+…Pn]

60
• DRH (unit of m3/s) and ERH (unit of cm/h)
represent the same total quantity of runoff even
though both are in different units.
DRH = ERH
• BUT, it is necessary to make DRH and ERH having
the same units, how can we do this?

61
 How to make ER=DR?
HYETOGRAPH - ERH HYDROGRAPH - DRH
Rainfall (cm/hr)

Discharge (m3/s)
Time
Time
Area of hyetograph (m)
Area of hydrograph = y m3
x Area of watershed
(m2) = y m3

62
 This is hyetograph!

Rainfall (cm/hr)

Rainfall (cm/hr)
Infiltration
Time
Time
Rainfall (cm/hr)

This is ER!

Time
63
 This is flood hydrograph!
Discharge (m3/s)

Discharge (m3/s)
baseflow

Time Time
Discharge (m3/s)

This is DRH!

Time 64
 Rainfall (cm/hr)

Time
=

Discharge (m3/s)
So, ER = DRH
Time

65
 Example2.5
Rainfall of magnitude 3.8cm and 2.8cm occurring
on two consecutive 4hr durations on a catchment
of area 27km2 produced the following flow at the
outlet of the catchment. Plot the hydrograph, and
estimate the rainfall excess and average rate of
initial losses (-index).

Time from start of -6 0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66

rainfall (hr.)

Observed flow(m3/s) 6 5 13 26 21 16 12 9 7 5 5 4.5 4.5

66
Solution:
The hydrograph is plotted and is shown in fig below.
 It is seen that the storm hydrograph has a base flow
component.
 For using the simple straight line method of base flow
separation,
N = 0.83x (27)0.2 = 1.6 days = 38.5 h
• However, by inspection, DRH starts at t =12h and ends at t =
48 h (which gives a value of N= 48 – 12 = 36 h).
• As N = 36h appears to be more satisfactory than N = 38.5h, in
the present case DRH is assumed to exist from t = 0 to 48h.
• A straight line base flow separation gives a constant value of
5m3/s for the base flow.
Area of DRH =
67
 1 1 1 1 1 
Vexcess  t  Q1  (Q1  Q2 )  (Q2  Q3 )  ...  (Qn 1  Qn )  (Qn )
2 2 2 2 2 

6  60  60 1 8  1 8  21  1 21  16  1 16  11  1 11  7  1 7  4  1 4  2  1 2

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 
3600  6  8  21  16  11  7  4  2
• = 1.4904 x 106m3 = total direct runoff due to storm
• Runoff depth = runoff volume ÷ catchment area
= 1.494x106 ÷ 27x106
= 0.052m or 5.52cm (rainfall excess)
• Total rainfall = 3.8 + 2.8 = 6.6cm
• Duration of rainfall = 8h
-index = Losses ÷ time = (6.6-5.52) ÷ 8 = 0.135cm/h
68
 -index = 0.135cm/h
30
Rainfall excess = 5.52cm
25
Discharge, m 3/s

20

15

10 DRH = 5.52cm

5
Base flow
0
-6 0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 72
Time in hours

69
 UNIT HYDROGRAPH (UH)

The DRH hydrograph

that results from
1 cm (or inch) of Excess rainfall

Discharge (m3/s)
rainfall excess,
occurring uniformly 1 cm UH
over the basin
at a uniform rate
during a specified
Time (hrs)
duration of time.

70
• The term ‘unit’ refers to a unit depth of rainfall
which is usually taken as 1 cm.

• The duration,D of the UH is used as a prefix to

specific unit hydrograph. It is written as ‘D-hr unit
hydrograph’.
e.g. 4-hr unit hydrograph, 7-hr unit
hydrograph etc.

71
 Derivation of UH from single storms
The derivation of the unit hydrograph of a catchment
from single storms proceeds in the following stages:
The rainfall records are scanned to find a storm of desired
duration that gives a fairly uniform distribution in time and
space. The hyetograph of this storm is constructed using a
convenient uniform interval of time.
The base flow is separated from the hydrograph
The surface runoff volume is determined as a depth of flow by
numerical integration:

72
Where, d = depth of surface runoff in mm
∆t = uniform time interval in hours at which the ordinates of the
surface runoff are measured
ΣQ = sum of all ordinates of surface runoff hydrograph in m3/s
A = catchment area in Km2

 The ordinates of the surface runoff hydrograph are divided by

the runoff depth d due to the ordinates of the unit
hydrograph.
 The unit hydrograph for effective rainfall of duration T, the
TUH, is plotted, and the area under the curve is checked to
see if the enclosed volume is equivalent to unit effective
rainfall over the area of catchment.

73
 Hydrograph
Storm (Flood) Hydrograph with all
components
substract baseflow

Direct Runoff Hydrograph (DRH) Hydrograph

without
baseflow
divide by rainfall
depth
Unit Hydrograph (UH) Hydrograph
for 1cm
depth of
rainfall

74
 Unit Hydrograph (UH)

multiply by rainfall depth

Direct Runoff Hydrograph (DRH)

plus baseflow

Storm (Flood) Hydrograph

75
 Example 2.6
Given below are the observed flows from a
storm of 3hr duration on a stream with a
drainage area of 122 sq.mile. Derive the unit
hydrograph.
Assume constant base flow = 600 ft3/s

76
77
78
1 mil = 5,280ft
1ft = 12 inch

79
 Changing of the Duration of the UH

• There are two methods to change the duration of unit

hydrograph:
(i) by superposition from u(T1,t) to u(T2,t), where T2 = n*T1,
with n an integer > 1, hence only enlargements of multiple
of T1 are possible,
(ii) by S-curve technique from u(T1,t) to u(T2,t) where T2 =
α*T1, with α a real > 0, hence, T2 may be larger than T1 but
also smaller than T1.
• It should be remembered that a unit hydrograph refers to
unit depth of rainfall excess so if the duration is T hours the
excess rainfall intensity is 1/T.

80
 Enlargement of T by superposition:
 Say, it is required to derive from U(T1,t) a unit hydrograph of
U(T2,t) with T2 = 3T1. The U(T1,t) refers to a rainfall intensity
of 1/T1 to give a unit depth, whereas U(T2.t) should refer to
1/T2 to give unit depth of effective rainfall.

 The U(T2.t) is obtained by superposition of three U(T1,t)

shifted T1 hours apart. By adding the ordinates of U(T1,t)
u(T1, t-T1) and u(T1,t-2T1) at the corresponding times the
resulting hydrograph Q(t) will refer to an effective rainfall of
3T1*1/T1 = 3 units.
 Hence to get U(T2,t) all Q(t) ordinates have to be multiplied by
(i2/i1) = (1/T2)/(1/T1) = T1/T2 = 1/3, to let it refer to unit
depth of rainfall.
81
 Conversion from u(1,t) to u(3,t)
Example 2.7

Use the superposition method to calculate the 2-h and 3-h unit
hydrograph of a catchment, based on the following1-h unit
hydrograph.
82
83
 Example 2.8
• Given below is the 4-hr U.H for a basin of 84
sq.mile. Derive S-curve and find the 2-hr unit
hydrograph.

84
85
 SYNTHETIC UH
• In those cases where field data is not available
for construction of a UH (either due to a lack of
gauging stations or a significant change in
watershed characteristics), an estimate of the
UH may be obtained through construction of a
synthetic UH using empirical equations.

86
• Unit hydrographs derived from such relationship
are known as synthetic-unit-hydrographs.

• However, these empirical methods are only

applicable to the specific regions in which they
were developed and should NOT be considered
as general relationships for use in all regions.

87
 Snyder’s Method
• This method introduces simple equations that can be
used to develop a hydrograph.

• The equations include: tr, tp, tb, Qp, W75 and W50.

88
 tp
Qp

tr
Q75% W75

Q50% W50

tb
Time

89
• tp – “Basin Lag”. Time lag from the centroid of
hyetograph to peak runoff.
tp = Ct (LLca) 0.3 (hr)
where,
Ct : A constant representing watershed slope and storage (1.35 –
1.65).
L : Length of main stream from the watershed divide outlet (km)
Lca: Length measured from the outlet to a point that is opposite to
watershed centroid (km)

90
• tr – A standard duration hours of effective rainfall.
tr = tp/5.5 (hr)

• t’p - A modified basin lag.

21 tR
t'p  tp  (hr)
22 4

91
• tb – Time base of a hydrograph.

tb = 72 + 3 t’p (hr)

• Qp – Peak discharge.

2.78 C p A
Qp  (m3/s)
t'p
• Where A = Catchment area (km2)
• Cp = a coefficient
• tp = basin lag (hrs)
92
• W75 – Width of UH at 75% peak discharge.

W50
W75  (hr)
1.75

• W5o – Width of UH at 50% peak discharge.

5.87
W50  1.08 (hr)
q
Qp
q (m3/s/km2)
A

93
 Example 2.6
Derive a 3-hr unit hydrograph for an ungaged
basin from the following data..
Length L =32 km; length L c =25 km; Area of
catchment =325 km2
Assume Ct =0.9 and Cp =1.8

94
95
96