School of Environmental Engineering

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PERLIS

EAT 359/3 : Water Resources Engineering

SURFACE WATER

AIN NIHLA KAMARUDZAMAN

ainnihla@unimap.edu.my
Phone: 019 3848233

EAT359 : Water Resources Engineering By: ANK

At the end of this lesson, the student shall be able to
learn:

1. What is the difference between overland flow, interflow and base flow
components contributing to stream flow generation.
2. What are hydrograph and hyetographs.
3. Methods to separate base flow from stream hydrograph to find out the
Direct Runoff Hydrograph.
4. What is Unit Hydrograph and its assumptions
5. Application of the Unit Hydrograph to find the Direct Runoff Hydrograph
 Surface Runoff
• A part of precipitation goes to atmosphere by
evaporation and transpiration.
• The remaining part goes to the stream or river of
the catchments as:
1. Surface water flow or overland flow
2. Interflow or sub surface flow
3. Groundwater flow

• The runoff is defined as a part of precipitation

which is not evapotranspirated.
• Two type of runoff: surface and sub surface
• Surface runoff is a major component of water
cycle.
• Theoretically, surface runoff is the net amount of
rainfall after subtracted by evapotranspiration and
infiltration.
• In reality, surface runoff is equivalent to river or Figure 1 shows how runoff in different forms
stream flow (Q in m3/s, lps or ft3/s) of the
catchment. occurs after precipitation.
 Hydrograph Analysis
• Hydrograph – a record and graphical representations of discharge as a
function of time at a specific location.
• After a rainfall/storm, discharges, Q are measured at the outlet at different
time interval (1 hr or 2 hr or 4 hr).
• Function:
• Reservoir design
• Assessing influence of flood control structures in reducing flood peaks
• Determining the duration and frequency of flooding
• Separating contributions from ground water and surface water
• Concept of Hydrograph:
1. Natural Hydrograph
2. Unit Hydrograph
3. Synthetic Hydrograph
 Natural Hydrograph
• An observed Q - t relationship of a
catchment due to rainfall event.
• A rainfall event produces a single
hydrograph. Peak
Flood
• A natural hydrograph has important
characteristics;
• Base flow recession
• Rising limb
• Falling limb
• Peak flow
• Inflection points
 3

Discharge (m3/s)
2

0 12 24 36 48 30 72
Hours from start of rain storm
 Rainfall shown in
mm, as a bar graph
3

Discharge (m3/s)
2
mm
4

1 3

0 12 24 36 48 30 72
Hours from start of rain storm
 Discharge in m3/s,
as a line graph
3

Discharge (m3/s)
2
mm
4

1 3

0 12 24 36 48 30 72
Hours from start of rain storm
 The rising of flood
water in the river
3

Discharge (m3/s)
2
mm
4

1 3

0 12 24 36 48 30 72
Hours from start of rain storm
• The most important parts
of hydrograph. Peak flow
• Peak flow information –
useful for design of Peak flow Maximum discharge in the
hydraulic structures. river (peak discharge)
3

Discharge (m3/s)
2
mm
4

1 3

0 12 24 36 48 30 72
Hours from start of rain storm
 Peak flow The falling of flood
water in the river
3

Discharge (m3/s)
2
mm
4

1 3

0 12 24 36 48 30 72
Hours from start of rain storm
 Base flow

Peak flow Normal discharge of

the river
3

Discharge (m3/s)
2
mm
4

1 3

2
Base flow

0 12 24 36 48 30 72
Hours from start of rain storm
 Lag Time
Lag time
The gap between the peak
rainfall and the peak
3 discharge

Discharge (m3/s)
2
mm
4

1 3

0 12 24 36 48 30 72
Hours from start of rain storm
 Factors Affecting Runoff Hydrograph
Physiographic Factors Climatic Factors
1. Basin Characteristics: 1. Storm Characteristics:
a) Shape a) Precipitation
b) Size b) Intensity
c) Slope c) Duration
d) Nature of the valley d) Magnitude
e) Elevation e) Movement of storm
f) Drainage density
2. Initial loss
2. Infiltration Characteristics:
a) Land use and cover 3. Evapotranspiration
b) Soil type and geological conditions
c) Lakes, swamps and other storage

3. Channel Characteristics:
a) Cross-section
b) Roughness
c) Storage capacity
 Assignment

Discuss how the shape of runoff hydrograph fluctuates

with the catchment characteristics and rainfall
characteristics?

Due date: 03/04/2017

 Base Flow Separation
Natural hydrograph consists of two main components; runoff component and
base flow component.
The direct runoff is obtained by separating the base flow from the natural
hydrograph.
Remember:
The base flow is the initial flow of the river before the rain comes.
It is produced from previous season (rainfall) and also considered to be mostly
from the ground water contribution.
Four Techniques for base flow
separation:
Direct
A. Empirical Formula runoff

Direct
B. Straight-line method runoff
only

C. Fixed base length method

D. Variable slope method Direct runoff = Observed streamflow – Base flow
 A. Empirical Formula

• Point A represents the beginning of

the direct runoff. N
QP
• Point B represents the end of the
direct runoff.

𝑁 = 𝑏 𝐴0.2
• Where;
A = catchment area (km2)
b = 0.83
N = time intervals (days) from the Note: The value of N is only approximate and the position of
B should be decided by considering a number of hydrographs
peak to the point B for the catchment.
 B. Straight-line Method

Draw a horizontal line segment (A‐B) from

start of runoff to intersection with recession
curve (representing the end of the direct
runoff)

• Segment A-B separate the base flow and direct runoff.

 C. Fixed Base Line Method
STEP 1
Peak flow STEP 2
Draw line segment (A – C)
extending base flow Draw line segment (C – B)
recession to a point by a straight line
directly below the
hydrograph peak (Point C)

• Segment A-C and C-B separate the base flow and direct runoff
 D. Variable slope method
STEP 1 Peak flow
Draw line segment (A‐C)
extending base flow
recession to a point
directly below the
hydrograph peak

STEP 2
Draw line segment (B‐E)
extending base flow
recession backward to a
point directly below the
inflection point

STEP 3
Draw line segment (C‐E)

• The surface runoff hydrograph obtained after the base-flow separation is also
known as Direct Runoff Hydrograph (DRH).
 Effective Rainfall
The Effective Rainfall Hyetograph (ERH) is obtained by subtracting the
initial loss and infiltration losses from the hyetograph of a storm.
It is also known as Hyetograph of Excess Rainfall
Effective rainfall definition;
Total Rainfall
• Not retained on land surface
• Not infiltrated into soil
Excess Rainfall
Both DRH and ERH represent the same total quantity
but in different units.
ERH is usually in cm/hr plotted against time.

Effective Rainfall = Excess Rainfall = Total Rainfall – (Initial Losses + Infiltration)

Effective Rainfall = Total Rainfall – Abstractions
 Infiltration Index
ABSTRACTION
• Water absorbed by infiltration
• Parameters of infiltration equations can be
determined by f-index.
• Abstractions/losses – difference between total
rainfall hyetograph and effective rainfall
hyetograph.

f -INDEX
• Constant rate of abstraction yielding effective
rainfall hyetograph with depth equal to depth of
direct runoff f -index
• Accounts for total abstraction.

Total rainfall (P) − f. 𝑡𝑟 = Depth of direct runoff = Effective Rainfall = Excess Rainfall
Where, 𝑁

𝑃= 𝐼𝑖 ∆t ; tr = duration of rainfall
1
 #Example 1
Rainfall of magnitude 3.8 cm and 2.8 cm occurring on two
consecutive 4-h durations on a catchment area 27 km2 produced
the following hydrograph of flow at the outlet of the catchment.
Estimate the effective rainfall and f-index?

Time
from
start of -6 0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66
rainfall
(hr)
Observed
flow 6 5 13 26 21 16 12 9 7 5 5 4.5 4.5
(m3/s)
 Solution #Example 1
The hydrograph is plotted to scale. It is seen that the storm hydrograph has
a base flow component.
 Solution #Example 1…cont.
1. Base flow separation:
A. Using Straight-line method; from observation of the hydrograph data, the
streamflow at the start of the rising limb of the hydrograph is 5 m3/s.

Base flow = 5 m3/s

Thus, use Constant base flow of 5 m3/s

 Solution #Example 1…cont.
B. Using Empirical Formula; N = 38.5 hr

𝑁 = 0.83 𝐴0.2 = 0.83 27 0.2

24 hr
= 1.6 days ×
1 day
= 38.5 hr
12 hr

So the base flow starts at 0th hour and ends at the point (12 + 38.5) hours
 50.5 hrs ( say 48 hrs approx.)

Thus, Constant base flow of 5 m3/s

2. Estimate the volume of direct runoff due to rainfall;

A. Using the area under the direct runoff hydrograph

Q3
Q2
Q4
Q5
Q1 Q6
Q7
A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8
∆t

Area under the graph = total volume of direct runoff (in m3)

= 𝑄. ∆𝑡
Total volume of direct runoff;
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= 𝑄1 ∆𝑡 + 𝑄1 + 𝑄2 ∆𝑡 + 𝑄2 + 𝑄3 ∆𝑡 + 𝑄3 + 𝑄4 ∆𝑡 + 𝑄4 + 𝑄5 ∆𝑡 + 𝑄5 + 𝑄6 ∆𝑡 + 𝑄6 + 𝑄7 ∆𝑡 + 𝑄7 ∆𝑡
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 60 min 60 𝑠
= 8 + 8 + 21 + 21 + 16 + 16 + 11 + 11 + 7 + 7 + 4 + 4 + 2 + 2 × 6 hr × ×
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 hr 1 min

= 1.49 × 106 m3

Calculating the volume of DRH

B. Using table; Estimate the volume of direct runoff due to rainfall;
Time from start of Observed Base flow Direct Runoff
rainfall Hydrograph (m3/s) Hydrograph
(hr) (m3/s) (m3/s)
(1) (2) (3) (4) = (2) – (3)
-6 6 5 1
0 5 5 0
6 13 5 8
12 26 5 21
Consider for
18 21 5 16
calculation of
24 16 5 11
direct runoff
30 12 5 7 volume
36 9 5 4
42 7 5 2
48 5 5 0
54 5 5 0
60 4.5 5 0
66 4.5 5 0
Separate the base flow from the observed streamflow hydrograph in order to obtain the Direct
Runoff Hydrograph (DRH).
Note: Direct Runoff Hydrograph = Observed hydrograph – base flow (Column 4)
Intervals, ∆t = 6 hr;
The volume of direct runoff (VDRH) due to rainfall;
7 7

𝑉𝐷𝑅𝐻 = 𝑄𝑛 ∆𝑡 = ∆𝑡 𝑄𝑛
𝑛=1 𝑛=1
Total volume
m3 60 min 60 s of DRH
= 8+21+16+11+7+4+2 × 6 hr × ×
s 1 hr 1 min

= 1.49 × 106 m3

3. Determine the effective rainfall;

VDRH in equivalent unit of depth = Volume of direct runoff (VDRH) = Effective Rainfall
(Depth of direct runoff) Catchment area (A)
1.49×106 m3
= =0.0552 m = 5.52cm
2
2 103 m
27 km ×
1 km
4. Calculate φ-index;

Total rainfall, P = (3.8 + 2.8) cm = 6.6 cm

Duration of rainfall, tr = 2 (4 hr) = 8 hr

Total rainfall (P) − f. 𝑡𝑟 = Depth of Direct runoff = Effective Rainfall = Excess Rainfall

f-index = Total rainfall – Effective rainfall

Duration of rainfall, tr

6.6 − 5.52 cm
= = 0.135 cm/hr
8 hr
5. The effective rainfall hyetograph (ERH)
Effective rainfall; For 1st 4 hrs = 3.8 – 0.135 cm/hr (4 hr) = 3.26 cm
For 2nd 4 hrs = 2.8 – 0.135 cm/hr (4 hr) = 2.26 cm

6. Plot the effective rainfall hyetograph (ERH) and Direct runoff hydrograph (DRH)
 Question
The observed streamflow and rainfall data are tabulated below. The catchment
area is 282.6 km2. Using the straight line method for base flow separation.

Time from Observed Time Observed

start of rainfall Hydrograph (hr) Rainfall
(hr) (m3/s) (cm/hr)
0 150 0–1 0.25
1 150 1–2 2.75
2 350 2–3 2.75
3 800 3–4 0.25
4 1200
5 900
6 750
7 550
8 350
9 225
10 150
11 150
 Question

i. Estimate the volume of direct runoff.

ii. Determine the excess rainfall.
iii. Calculate the abstraction index, f.
 Unit Hydrograph (UH)
 The theory was 1st proposed by Sherman
(1932).

 Unit hydrograph is a direct runoff hydrograph

(DRH) produced from 1 in (usually taken as 1
cm in SI units) of effective rainfall (net rainfall)
occurred uniformly over the entire catchment at
uniform rate and for specific duration (D
hours).

 Simple Linear Model – used to find out the

volume of direct runoff due to 1 cm of effective
rainfall.
 UH - Basic Assumptions
1. The effective rainfall has a constants intensity within the effective duration.
2. The effective rainfall is uniformly distributed over the entire catchment area.
3. The base of time duration of the DRH due to effective rainfall of given
duration is constant. Base period of hydrograph with different rainfall
intensities remain approximately same.
4. The ordinates of DRH due to effective rainfall with different intensities but
same duration are directly proportional.
5. For a given catchment, the hydrograph resulting from a given effective
rainfall reflects the unchanging characteristics of the catchment.
 Derivation of UH from a simple Flood
Hydrograph
Steps required to derive UH are:
STEP 1: From the given flood hydrograph, separate the base flow by any one of the
methods.
STEP 2: Determine the volume of direct runoff hydrograph by the formula:
Volume of DRH = ∑Q∆t
STEP 3: Divide the volume of DRH by the catchment area to get DRH in equivalent
unit of depth (in cm), i.e. effective rainfall or excess rainfall.
STEP 4: Divide the ordinates of DRH by the effective rainfall to obtain ordinates
of UH.
STEP 5: Plot the ordinates of UH against time to get the UH of the catchment.
 #Example 2
Obtain a Unit Hydrograph for a basin with area 315 km2 using the rainfall
and discharge data tabulated below.
Discharge Data Rainfall Data
Time from Observed Time Observed
start of Discharge (hr) Rainfall
rainfall (m3/s) (cm/hr)
(hr)
0 100 0–1 0.5
1 100 1–2 2.5
2 300 2–3 2.5
3 700 3–4 0.5
4 1000
5 800
6 600
7 400
8 300
9 200
10 100
11 100
 #Solution Example2..
1. Separate the base flow from the observed discharge hydrograph in order to
obtain the Direct Runoff Hydrograph (DRH). Use the straight-line method to
separate the base flow.

From observation of the hydrograph data, the discharge at the start of the
rising limb of the hydrograph is 100 m3/s. Thus, use constant 100 m3/s as
the base flow.
2. Compute the volume of direct runoff. This volume must be equal to the
volume of the Effective Rainfall Hyetograph (ERH).
Time from start of Observed Base flow Direct Runoff
rainfall Discharge (m3/s) Hydrograph
(hr) (m3/s) (m3/s)
(1) (2) (3) (4) = (2) – (3)
0 100 100 0
1 100 100 0
2 300 100 200
3 700 100 600
Consider for
4 1000 100 900 calculation of
5 800 100 700 direct runoff
6 600 100 500 volume
7 400 100 300
8 300 100 200
9 200 100 100
10 100 100 0
11 100 100 0

Separate the base flow from the observed streamflow hydrograph in order to obtain the ordinates of
Direct Runoff Hydrograph (DRH).
Note: Direct Runoff Hydrograph = Observed discharge – base flow
The volume of direct runoff (VDRH) due to rainfall;
∆t = 1 hr
8 8

𝑉𝐷𝑅𝐻 = 𝑄𝐷𝑅𝐻𝑛 ∆𝑡 = ∆𝑡 𝑄𝐷𝑅𝐻𝑛

𝑛=1 𝑛=1

m3 60 min 60 s
= 200 + 600 + 900 + 700 + 500 + 300 + 200 + 100 × 1 hr × ×
s 1 hr 1 min

= 1.26 × 107 m3

3. Express VDRH in equivalent units of depth by dividing with a catchment area;

VDRH in equivalent unit of depth = Volume of direct runoff (VDRH) = Effective Rainfall
Catchment area (A)
(Depth of direct runoff) 7 3 1.26×10 m
= = 0.04 m = 4.0 cm
2
2 103 m
315 km ×
1 km
4. Derive ordinates of Unit Hydrograph by normalizing the DRH. Normalizing implies
dividing the ordinates of the DRH by the VDRH in equivalent units of depth (Effective
Rainfall).
Time from start of Observed Direct Runoff Unit
rainfall Hydrograph Hydrograph, (DRH) Hydrograph
(hr) (m3/s) (m3/s) (m3/s/cm)
(1) (2) (3) (4) = (3)/4 cm
0 100 0 0
1 100 0 0
2 300 200 50
3 700 600 150
4 1000 900 225
5 800 700 175
6 600 500 125
7 400 300 75
8 300 200 50
9 200 100 25
10 100 0 0
11 100 0 0

Ordinate of DRH 𝐷𝑅𝐻

𝑂𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑈𝐻 = =
Effective rainfall 4 𝑐𝑚
5. Determine the duration, D of the Effective Rainfall hyetograph (ERH) associated
with the UH obtained in Q4. In order to do this:

a) Determine the volume of losses, VLosses which is equal to the difference

between the volume of observed rainfall, VGRH (gross rainfall) and the volume
of the direct runoff hydrograph, VDRH in equivalent units of depth;

∆t = 1 hr;
VLosses = VGRH - VDRH = [(0.5 + 2.5 + 2.5 + 0.5) cm/hr x 1 hr] – 4 cm = 2 cm

b) Compute the f-index equal to the ratio of the volume of losses to the rainfall
duration, tr. Thus,

Duration of rainfall, tr = 4 hr
VLosses 2 cm
f−index= t =
4 hr
= 0.5 cm/hr
r
c) Determine the Effective Rainfall hyetograph (ERH) by subtracting the infiltration
(e.g., f-index) from the gross rainfall (GRH):

Time Observed Rainfall Excess Rainfall

(hr) (GRH) hyetograph
(cm/hr) (ERH)
(cm/hr)
(1) (2) (3) = (2) – f-index
0–1 0.5 0.0
1–2 2.5 2.0
2–3 2.5 2.0
3–4 0.5 0.0

As observed in the table, the duration of the effective rainfall hyetograph is 2

hours. Thus, D = 2 hours, and the Unit Hydrograph obtained in Q4 is a 2-hour
Unit Hydrograph.
 Question
The following are the ordinates of the hydrograph of flow from a catchment
area of 500 km2 due to a 6-hr rainfall. Assuming the base flow to be zero;
Time Observed flow
(hr) (m3/s) (1) Estimate the volume of direct runoff
0 0 (2) Calculate the effective rainfall
6 100
12 250
(3) Derive the ordinates of 6-hr unit hydrograph.
18 200
24 150
30 100
36 70
42 50
48 35
54 25
60 15
66 5
72 0
 Soil Conservation Service (SCS) Method
for Abstractions
• Soil Conservation Service (SCS) method is an experimentally derived method
for computing the abstractions from storm rainfall using information about
soils, vegetative cover, hydrologic condition and antecedent moisture
conditions.
• The method is based on the simple relationship that;

P = Pe + Ia + Fa
P  Pe  I a  Fa

Precipitation
• Where,
Pe
– P is total rainfall
– Pe is effective rainfall
– Ia is initial losses Ia Fa
– Fa is continuing abstraction
Time
tp
Basic equation to calculate the effective rainfall or the depth of direct runoff
from a storm by SCS method;

P - I a 2
Pe 
P - Ia  S

This equation shows the relationship between effective rainfall, Pe and total
rainfall, P. Where, S = potential maximum storage.
From study of small experimental catchment, an empirical relation was
developed.

I a  0 .2 S

So,
P - 0.2S 2
Pe 
P  0.8S
 Plotting P and Pe from many catchment, the SCS
found curves of the type shown as below;
• The curve number, CN
(dimensionless) and S (inches) are
related by

1000
S - 10
CN
(American Units; 0  CN  100)

25400
S - 254CN
CN
(SI Units; 30  CN  100)

• Curve number, CN:

– Impervious surfaces:
CN = 100
– Natural surfaces:
CN < 100
Figure : Solution of the SCS runoff equation (Source : Soil Conservation Service, 1972)
 Curve Number
• S and CN depend on Antecedent Moisture Conditions (AMC).
• Normal conditions, AMC(II)
1000
CN ( II ) 
10  S

• Dry conditions, AMC(I)

4.2CN ( II )
CN ( I ) 
10 - 0.058CN ( II )

• Wet conditions, AMC(III)

23CN ( II )
CN ( III ) 
10  0.13CN ( II )
SCS Curve Numbers depend on Soil
Conditions
Minimum Infiltration
Group
Rate (in/hr)
A 0.3 – 0.45
B 0.15 – 0.30
C 0.05 – 0.15
D 0.00 – 0.05
Soil Type
High infiltration rates. Deep, well
drained sands and gravels
Moderate infiltration rates. Moderately
deep, moderately well drained soils
with moderately coarse textures (silt,
silt loam)
Slow infiltration rates. Soils with layers,
or soils with moderately fine textures
(clay loams)
Very slow infiltration rates. Clayey soils,
high water table, or shallow impervious
layer
 #Example 3
Calculate the effective rainfall from 5 inches of rainfall on a 1000 acre
watershed. The hydrologic soil group is 50% Group B and 50% Group C.
Antecedent moisture condition II is assumed. The land use is :

40% residential area that is 30% impervious

12% residential area that is 65% impervious
18% paved roads with curbs and storm sewers
16% open land with 50% fair grass cover and 50% good grass cover
14% parking lots, plaza, school and so on (all impervious)
 Given information: SCS Method
• Rainfall: 5 in. • Pe = ?
• Area: 1000-ac
P - 0.2S 2
• Soils: Pe 
• Class B: 50% P  0.8S
• Class C: 50%
• Antecedent moisture: AMC(II) • Given P = 5 inches, hence need to
• Land use find S
• Residential • S = (1000/CN) – 10
• 40% with 30% impervious cover
• 12% with 65% impervious cover • Weighted CN = total product /100
• Paved roads: 18% with curbs and storm
sewers
• Open land: 16%
• 50% fair grass cover
• 50% good grass cover
• Parking lots, etc.: 14%
 Solution:
1. Calculate the weighted curve number;
Hydrologic Soil Group
B C
Land use % CN Product % CN Product Note:
Residential (30% imp cover) 20 72 1440 20 81 1620 Product = % x CN

Residential (65% imp cover) 6 85 510 6 90 540

Paved roads with curbs and 9 98 882 9 98 882
storm sewers
Open land: good cover 4 61 244 4 74 296
Open land: Fair cover 4 69 276 4 79 316
Parking lots, etc 7 98 686 7 98 686
Total 50 4038 50 4340

CN values come from Table 5.5.2

 4038+4340
Weighted Curve Number, CN = = 83.78
100

1000
Maximum potential storage, S = − 10
CN

1000
= − 10
83.78

=1.93 in

The effective rainfall, Pe 

P - 0.2S 2
P  0.8S


5 - 0.2 1.93
2
 3.25 in
5  0.8 1.93
 #Example 4
Re-compute the effective rainfall from #Example 3 if the wet conditions of
antecedent moisture condition III are applicable.

Solution:
Find a curve number for AMC III equivalent to CN = 83.8 under AMC II
using;
23CN ( II )
CN ( III ) 
10  0.13CN ( II )

23  83.8

10  0.13(83.8)

 92.3
 1000
Maximum potential storage, S = − 10
CN

1000
= − 10
92.3

=0.83 in

P - 0.2S 2
The effective rainfall, Pe 
P  0.8S


5 - 0.2  0.83
2
 4.13 in
5  0.8  0.83

The change in effective rainfall caused by the change in antecedent moisture

conditions is 4.13 – 3.25 = 0.88 in, a 27 percent increases.