Maximum Velocity and Regularities in Open-Channel Flow

Chao-Lin Chiu, M.ASCE,1 and Ning-Chien Tung2

Abstract: Maximum velocity in a channel section often occurs below the water surface. Its location is linked to the ratio of the mean
and maximum velocities, velocity distribution parameter, location of mean velocity, energy and momentum coefficients, and probability
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density function underpinning a velocity distribution equation derived by applying the probability and entropy concepts. The mean value
of the ratio of the mean and maximum velocities at a given channel section is stable and constant, and invariant with time and discharge.
Its relationship with the others in turn leads to formation of a network of related constants that represent regularities in open-channel flows
and can be used to ease discharge measurements and other tasks in hydraulic engineering. Under the probability concept, the ratio of mean
and maximum velocities being constant means that the probability distribution underpinning the velocity distribution and other related
variables is resilient, and that the same probability distribution is governing various phenomena observable at a channel section and
explains the regularities in open-channel flows.
DOI: 10.1061/共ASCE兲0733-9429共2002兲128:4共390兲
CE Database keywords: Velocity; Open channel flow; Probability distribution.

Introduction has been no motivation to make serious efforts to investigate the

location and magnitude of maximum velocity.
There are regularities in open-channel flows that, if detected, ana-
lyzed, and properly understood, can be used as the basis to sim- Probability Concept in Analysis
plify data collection and improve the flow forecasting, design, and of Maximum Velocity
control of engineering systems. The regularities are natural laws
governing the flows, and their detection can be aided by theoret- To study the location and magnitude of maximum velocity, a
ical analysis. Chiu and Said 共1995兲 reported that the mean value velocity distribution equation is needed that is capable of describ-
of the ratio of the mean and maximum velocities of flow in a ing all types of velocity distribution patterns, with maximum ve-
channel section is constant. This follow-up paper is mainly con- locity occurring on or below the water surface. By applying the
cerned with the regularity about the maximum velocity in fluid probability concept, Chiu 共1989兲 derived the following velocity
flows, its information content, and potential applications. distribution equation:
Civil engineers discovered a long time ago that the maximum
velocity in open channel flow often occurs below the water sur-
face and wondered why 共Francis 1878; Stearns 1883兲. Even in a
u⫽
u max
M 冋
ln 1⫹ 共 e M ⫺1 兲
␰
␰ max 册 (1)

large river such as the Mississippi River the maximum velocity
occurs as much as one-third of the water depth below the water
surface 共Gordon 1992兲. In conventional discharge measurements
the velocity is measured at only two points, located at the two-
tenths and eight-tenths of the water depth, respectively, on each of
a number of vertical lines selected across a channel section. The
in which u⫽velocity; u max⫽maximum velocity in a channel
cross section; M ⫽parameter; ␰ max⫽maximum value of ␰ and oc-
curs at the location of u max ; and ␰⫽constant on an isovel on
which the velocity is equal to u. ␰/␰ max is equivalent to the prob-
ability of velocity, randomly sampled in a channel section, being
less than or equal to u, or the cumulative distribution function

冕
two velocity samples inevitably give the impression that the ve- ␰ u
locity increases continuously from the channel bed to the water ⫽ f 共 u 兲 du (2)
surface and the maximum velocity always occurs at the water ␰ max 0
surface. Thus it has been impossible to detect the occurrence of where f (u), 0⭐u⭐u max , ⫽ the following probability density
the maximum velocity below the water surface. Without knowl- function derived by maximizing the Shannon’s information en-
edge about its information content and possible applications, there tropy 共Shannon 1948, Chiu 1989兲
1
Professor of Civil Engineering, Dept. of Civil and Environmental
f 共 u 兲 ⫽e a 1 ⫹a 2 u (3)
Engineering, Univ. of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261. in which the parameters a 1 and a 2 are related to M and u max in
2
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Ching Yun Institute Eq. 共1兲 by
of Technology, Jungli, Taiwan.
Note. Discussion open until September 1, 2002. Separate discussions M
must be submitted for individual papers. To extend the closing date by a 2⫽ (4)
u max
one month, a written request must be filed with the ASCE Managing
Editor. The manuscript for this paper was submitted for review and pos- M
e a1⫽ (5)
sible publication on February 22, 2001; approved on August 14, 2001. u max共 e M ⫺1 兲
This paper is part of the Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, Vol. 128,
No. 4, April 1, 2002. ©ASCE, ISSN 0733-9429/2002/4- Eq. 共2兲 is equivalent to Eq. 共1兲; and f (u), as defined by Eq. 共3兲,
390–398/$8.00⫹$.50 per page. ⫽ probability distribution underpinning the velocity distribution

390 / JOURNAL OF HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING / APRIL 2002

J. Hydraul. Eng. 2002.128:390-398.

 in the physical space. On the vertical axis, called ‘‘y axis’’ here-
inafter, on which the maximum velocity u max occurs, ␰ may be
expressed 共Chiu and Lin 1983, Chiu and Chiou 1986兲 as a func-

冉 冊
tion of y such as
y y

␰⫽
y
D⫺h
exp 1⫺ 冉
y
D⫺h
⫽ 冊 1⫺
h
D
exp 1⫺
D

1⫺
h
(6)

D D
in which y⫽vertical distance from the bed. In applying Eq. 共1兲
with ␰ defined by Eq. 共6兲, there are three cases
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Case 1
The maximum velocity u max occurs at a vertical distance h below
the water surface, or y⫽D⫺h, and hence the velocity decreases
as y increases from this point up to the water surface so that
du/dy⬍0 at the water surface: In this case, h⬎0 and ␰ max as well
as u max occurs at y⫽D⫺h so that Eq. 共6兲 gives ␰ max⫽1 and
␰
␰ max
⫽␰⫽
y
D⫺h
exp 1⫺
y
D⫺h 冉 冊 (7)

Since h represents the distance of u max from the water surface, the
upper limit of h/D is unity.

Case 2
u max occurs on the water surface so that h⫽0 and ␰ max⫽1 and Eq.
共7兲 becomes
␰
␰ max
⫽␰⫽
y
D
exp 1⫺冉 冊
y
D
(8)

Eq. 共1兲 with ␰/␰ max defined by Eq. 共8兲 gives du/dy⫽0 at the
water surface and hence can describe a velocity distribution curve
that intersects the water surface at a right angle.

Case 3
Fig. 1. Location of y axis: 共a兲 locating y axis from isovel pattern and
u max occurs on the water surface and du/dy⬎0 at the water sur- 共b兲 locating y axis from surface velocity distribution
face: In this case, h⬍0 and h no longer has the same physical
meaning 共location of u max兲 as that in Cases 1 and 2. It is only a
coefficient that can fine-tune the curvature of the velocity distri- nels and must be determined by observation. For example, the y
bution. The maximum value of ␰ is axis can be detected from the pattern of isovels in a channel

冉 冊
section as shown in Fig. 1共a兲. If detailed velocity distribution data
D D are unavailable, it can also be detected from the velocity distribu-
␰ max⫽ exp 1⫺ (9)
D⫺h D⫺h tion on the water surface as shown in Fig. 1共b兲, as the location of
so that maximum surface velocity tends to coincide with that of u max .
␰
␰ max
⫽
y
D
exp冉 冊
D⫺y
D⫺h
(10)
Ratio of Mean and Maximum Velocities
As h approaches negative infinity, Eq. 共10兲 becomes
By using the probability density function f (u) defined by Eq. 共3兲
␰ y the ratio of the mean and maximum velocity can be derived as the
⫽ (11)
␰ max D following function of M:
Eqs. 共7兲–共11兲 illustrate that ␰/␰ max in Eq. 共1兲 can be adjusted to ū eM 1
describe various, possible patterns of velocity distribution. This is ⫽␾⫽ ⫺ (12)
u max e ⫺1 M
M
a unique feature of Eq. 共1兲.
One of the regularities of open-channel flow is that the average Fig. 2共a兲 shows the relation of ū to u max in a wide range of
location of the y axis in a channel section tends to be stable and discharge in the Allegheny River at Natrona during a 20-year
stays at the same location. It is obvious that in a straight, pris- period 共Chiu and Chen 1999a兲, in which Z y and ␴ denote the
matic channel of rigid boundary the y axis occurs in the middle of mean and standard deviation of the location of the y axis from a
a channel section, but its location is not obvious in natural chan- reference point, respectively. Fig. 2共b兲 is a similar relation in the

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J. Hydraul. Eng. 2002.128:390-398.


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Fig. 2. ū⫺u max relation: 共a兲 Allegheny River at Natrona and 共b兲
Tanshui River at Taipei Bridge
Tanshui River at Taipei Bridge 共Chiu and Chen 1999b兲, where the
flow is unsteady and reverses its direction during a day under the
tidal effects. For additional examples, see Chiu and Said 共1995兲
and Chiu et al. 共2000兲. These experimental data indicate that the
mean value of the ratio ␾ of the mean and maximum velocities at
any given channel section, as represented by the slope of the
regression line relating ū to u max such as that in Figs. 2共a or b兲, is
invariant with time and discharge and remains constant regardless
of whether the flow is steady or unsteady. Fig. 2共a兲 also shows
that if a measuring device is installed at the mean location of the
y axis and the velocity samples collected there are used to esti-
mate u max while the actual location of u max deviates from the
mean location of the y axis by one standard deviation 共as much as
23 m in this case兲 serious errors in estimation of u max and ␾ are
not caused. Since ␾ is a function of M as shown by Eq. 共12兲, the
mean value of M at a channel section obtained from the mean
value of ␾ also tends to stay constant. The extensiveness of the
laboratory and field data analyzed and the consistency of the re-
sults show that the tendency for the mean values of ␾ and M to
392 / JOURNAL OF HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING / APRIL 2002
J. Hydraul. Eng. 2002.128:390-398.
remain constant at a channel section has regularity, 共time兲 invari-
ance, and universality required of a natural law 共Chiu 1996兲.
Statistically, the fact that the mean values of ␾ and M are
constant at a channel section implies that the probability density
function f (u/u max), which is f (u) in Eq. 共3兲 multiplied by u max
and has M as the only parameter, is resilient and that the various
flow patterns observable at a channel section are governed by the
same probability distribution. It also shows the stability and reli-
ability of Eq. 共1兲 as a velocity distribution equation in various
flows at a channel section. From the practical viewpoint, it can be
used to ease discharge measurements, especially in unsteady
flows, as ū⫽␾u max and u max can be measured or estimated much
easier and faster than ū. The constant 共average兲 value of M at a
channel section also can be used to facilitate determining the
velocity distribution and velocity gradient using Eq. 共1兲 in inves-
tigating various transport phenomena in open channels.
Location of Maximum Velocity and its Relation to ␾
and M
To gain an insight into the mechanism determining the location of
the maximum velocity below the water surface and to obtain
guidance in data analysis, consider the bed shear at the y axis that
can be expressed as
␳gs f 共 D⫺h 兲 ⫽␳␧ 0
du
dy y⫽0
冏 (13)
which takes into account the condition that the shear stress is zero
at y⫽D⫺h where u max occurs. In Eq. 共13兲, g⫽gravitational ac-
celeration; s f ⫽friction slope; and ␧ 0 ⫽momentum transfer coef-
ficient at the channel bed and is equal to the kinematic viscosity ␯
of the fluid if the flow is laminar or has a viscous sublayer at the
channel bed. The local bed shear may deviate from the mean
boundary shear at a channel section. However, secondary currents
present in open-channel flows tend to make the bed shear uni-
formly distributed along the channel bed, except in and near the
corners, so that the bed shear at the y axis may be assumed ap-
proximately equal to the mean boundary shear 共Chiu and Chiou
1986, Chiu and Lin 1983兲. The friction slope and hence the mean
boundary shear are related to the cross-sectional mean velocity
and friction factor by the Darcy–Weisbach equation that can be
expressed in the following form:
u
ū
⫽
*
冑 8
f
(14)
in which f ⫽friction factor and u ⫽shear velocity defined as
冑␶ 0 /␳, where ␳ is the fluid density*and ␶ 0 is the mean boundary
shear. Assuming that the bed shear at the y axis is approximately
equal to the mean boundary shear under the effect of secondary
currents and using the velocity gradient obtained by Eq. 共1兲 in
which ␰ is defined by Eq. 共6兲, Eq. 共13兲 can be combined with Eq.
共14兲 to yield the following relation:
冉 冊 冉 冊
h 2
␧0 Rh 2
8e
1⫺ ⫽ G共 M 兲 (15)
D ␯ D f NR
in which R h ⫽hydraulic radius; N R ⫽Reynolds number defined as
N R ⫽ūR h /␯; and
e M ⫺1
G共 M 兲⫽ (16)
M␾
in which ␾ is a function of M as defined by Eq. 共12兲. Eq. 共15兲
gives an insight into the mechanism determining the location of
 maximum velocity. Consider a simpler case: If the channel is
wide and u max occurs on the water surface such that ␰/␰ max in Eq.
共1兲 can be represented simply as y/D and ␶ 0 ⫽␳gDs f the follow-
ing relation similar but simpler than Eq. 共15兲 can be obtained:
␧0 8
G 共 M 兲 ⫽1 (17)
␯ f NR
In a flow with viscous sublayer at the channel bed, ␧ 0 /␯⫽1;
therefore Eq. 共17兲 shows that G(M ) and hence M vary with the
product of f and N R . If the flow is laminar, the product f N R is
constant as shown in the experimental data of Chow 共1959兲. This
provides evidence showing that M and hence ␾ are also constant
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at a channel section when the flow is laminar. Conversely, the
product f N R varies with M, ␾, or ū/u max . In general, the obser-
vation that ␾ and M are constant at a channel section in natural
and man-made channels means that they control ␧ 0 /␯, f, N R , R h ,
and h. Eq. 共15兲 provides a motivation to investigate the relation of
h/D to G(M ) and hence M when u max occurs below the water
surface. Fig. 3 shows a result of analyzing the regression of h/D
on G(M ), which describes the following empirical relation be-
tween h/D and G(M ) in the data range, 1.0⭐M ⭐5.6 and 0
⭐h/D⭐0.61
h G共 M 兲
⫽⫺0.2 ln (18)
D 58.3
Eq. 共18兲 can be translated into the h/D⫺M relation inserted in
the figure. The various symbols shown in the figure indicate a
large number of sets of laboratory and field data collected under
various flow and channel conditions including both steady and
unsteady flows.
To show how the points in the figure were obtained, the ve-
locity and discharge data from the South Esk River at Bridge 4
共Bridge and Jarvis 1985兲 can be used for illustration: First of all,
the ū⫺u max relation similar to that in Fig. 2 was plotted, from
which the mean value of ␾ was determined as 0.70 that, accord-
ing to Eq. 共12兲, corresponds to M ⫽2.67. The velocity data on the
y axis were then analyzed to determine u max and h by regression
for each set of velocity data, with M fixed at 2.67. Fig. 4共a兲 shows
the tendency for h to increase with u max and hence discharge. The
h values were then divided by the corresponding values of water
depth D. In Fig. 4共b兲 the h/D values were plotted against u max ,
which indicates that h/D is quite stable and invariant with u max or
discharge. The average value of h/D was obtained as 0.48. A pair
of M and h/D thus obtained determines a point in Fig. 3.
The relation between the average values of h/D and M thus
obtained and shown in Fig. 3 and Eq. 共18兲 is for Case 1 men-
tioned earlier when ␰ was first defined by Eq. 共6兲, in which u max
occurs below the water surface. In practical application, however,
it should be kept in mind that Eq. 共18兲 and the regression line in
Fig. 3 represent the average relation between h/D and M. This
means that values of h/D estimated from individual velocity pro-
files measured at a channel section of a certain M value may
fluctuate or deviate above or below that given by Eq. 共18兲 or Fig.
3. The scatter of the data points about the regression line in Fig. 3,
as measured by the standard deviation 0.057, indicates the uncer-
tainty due to various possible factors such as measurements errors
and other possible factors. The 95% upper and lower confidence
limits of h/D at a given value of M also shown in the figure are
the value given by the line plus and minus 0.11, respectively.
Fig. 3 and Eq. 共18兲 also show that h⫽0 at M ⫽5.6. This is
Case 2 in which u max occurs on the water surface and the velocity
gradient du/dy is zero at the water surface, or the velocity distri-
bution curve intersects with the water surface at a right angle. In
Case 3 for which M ⬎5.6, u max occurs on the water surface, and
J. Hydraul. Eng. 2002.128:390-398.
h⬍0 and du/dy⬎0 from the channel bed to the water surface.
As M increases beyond 6, the magnitude of 共negative兲 h jumps
quickly and reaches a very high value within only a small incre-
ment in M. Therefore for practical purposes it would be reason-
able just to define ␰/␰ max in Eq. 共1兲 to be equal to y/D, which is
equivalent to h approaching negative infinity. Attempts to deter-
mine the exact value of h for M exceeding 7 would be unneces-
sary in practice. With M at or in the vicinity of 5.6, u max is on or
very near the water surface, for which an assumption of h⫽0
共Case 2兲 will not lead to serious errors in describing a velocity
distribution. According to Leopold et al. 共1995兲, u max is between
25 and 50% greater than ū in rivers in the United States. This
information can be translated into M being between 2 and 5.
According to Eq. 共18兲 and Fig. 3, this also means that u max nor-
mally occurs below the water surface in rivers in the United
States.
The average value of h/D as well as that of M being constant
at a channel section, as shown by Eq. 共18兲 and Fig. 4共b兲, implies
that (␧ 0 /␯)(R h /D)( f N R ) ⫺1 at a channel section is also constant
and can be determined from M by using Eq. 共15兲 to gain insight
into the interaction among ␧ 0 , f, and N R . The tendency for h/D
to increase as M decreases as shown by Eq. 共18兲 can be observed
along a bend in a trapezoidal flume 共Yen 1965兲: As the flow enters
the bend from a straight reach, both u max and h increase, and since
the values of ū and D remain about the same along the bend the
value of h/D increases while ū/u max or ␾ and hence M decrease.
The tendency for M to decrease means that the probability density
function f (u/u max) tends to become more uniform, or the increas-
ing tendency of the Shannon’s information entropy that, for the
present case, is the following function of M:
冕 冉 冊 冉 冊冉 冊
1 u u u e M ⫺1 M e M
H⫽⫺ f ln f d ⫽1⫹ln ⫺ M
0 u max u max u max M e ⫺1
(19)
Leopold and Langbein 共1962兲 and Jaynes 共1957兲 discussed pos-
sible connections between the information entropy and thermody-
namic entropy. Theoretically, H reaches maximum at M ⫽0 when
f (u/u max)⫽1 共completely uniform兲, 0⭐u/u max⭐1. However, in
reality the local factors at a channel section mentioned earlier
exert constraints so that f (u/u max) can never be completely uni-
form. Although the mean values of ␾ and M tend to vary from
section to section along the bend, they remain constant at any
given section. They can be employed as measures of how far the
共information兲 entropy can be increased or how far the 共probabil-
ity兲 density function f (u/u max) can be made uniform under the
overall effect of the constraining factors at a channel section, and
would be useful for classifying or indexing various channel sec-
tions or rivers and streams. It would be interesting to relate each
of these factors to the value of ␾ and M.
Eq. 共18兲 also can be used to determine h/D from M and re-
duces the number of parameters in Eq. 共1兲 to only one (u max) to
be estimated at a channel section at any given discharge, in de-
scribing a complete velocity distribution on the y axis and esti-
mating the maximum and mean velocities. For example, in un-
steady high flows, subsurface velocity measurements become
very difficult or simply impossible. A device that can be used to
measure the surface velocity from above the water surface 共such
as radar兲 becomes useful in such a situation. Since M and h/D are
section constant the maximum velocity that occurs below the
water surface can be estimated from the surface velocity by using
the following equation obtained from Eq. 共1兲 with ␰ defined by
Eq. 共6兲:
JOURNAL OF HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING / APRIL 2002 / 393
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Fig. 3. Relation between h/D, G(M ), and M
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Fig. 5. Determining velocity profiles from surface velocity

Theoretically, regression analysis of a set of velocity data on

the y axis can give M directly along with h and u max but this M
tends to deviate from the mean value obtained from the mean
value of ␾ at the section. Therefore at stations where there is no
record of discharge to analyze the ū⫺u max relation as shown in
Fig. 2 to determine the mean values of M and ␾, Eq. 共18兲 can be
used to determine the mean value of M from the mean value of
h/D determined from a number of sets of velocity samples on the
y axis. The M value obtained from the mean value of h/D by
using their relation shown in Fig. 3 or expressed by Eq. 共18兲 is
reliable since the relationship is based on a large number of sets
of data. For example, Fig. 6 shows a velocity distribution in an
open channel 共Knight and Sterling 2000兲. The regression analysis
of velocity data on the y axis gives h/D⫽0.29 along with u max
⫽0.643 m/s. The value of h/D in turn can be used to determine
M ⫽3.7 from Eq. 共18兲 or Fig. 3. The M value substituted into Eq.
共12兲 then gives ␾⫽0.753. The mean velocity can then be esti-
Fig. 4. Relation of h and h/D to u max : 共a兲 h⫺u max relation and 共b兲
mated as ū est⫽u max␾⫽0.484 m/s which is close to the observed
h/D⫺u max relation
mean velocity ū obs⫽Q/A⫽0.493 m/s.

冋 冉 冊册
Relative Locations of u max and ū
u max 1 1
u D⫽ ln 1⫹ 共 e M ⫺1 兲 exp 1⫺ (20) If u max occurs on the water surface and M is greater than 6, ␰/␰ max
M h h
1⫺ 1⫺ in Eq. 共1兲 can be defined as y/D; and the location of the point
D D ¯ /␰ max⫽0.368, where ȳ and ¯␰ are y and ␰ at
where u⫽ū is ȳ/D⫽␰
in which u D ⫽surface velocity or u at y⫽D. The mean velocity in which u⫽ū, and there is no need to deal with h/D. This is
turn can be determined as ū⫽␾u max . The three sets of velocity because of the governing probability density function

冉 冊
data on the y axis of South Esk River at Bridge 4 共Bridge and
u M
Jarvis 1985兲 shown in Fig. 5 can be used to illustrate this tech- f ⫽ M e M 共 u/u max兲 (21)
nique. First of all, the surface velocity u D of each velocity profile u max e ⫺1
indicated on the figure was estimated from the velocity data. As- which is exponential so that the probability of u being less than or
suming it is the only velocity sample taken, the value of u D ob- equal to the mean value ū, or the cumulative distribution ¯␰ /␰ max ,
tained and the constant values of M and h/D for this channel quickly approaches 0.368 once M exceeds about 6.
section, 2.67 and 0.48, respectively, were substituted into Eq. 共20兲 To locate the point where u⫽ū on the y axis when u max occurs
to compute u max and the velocity profile shown in the figure, below the water surface, the following relation obtained from Eq.
without using the velocity data. The accuracy and reliability of 共1兲 can be used:

冋 册
the velocity profiles computed in such a way from the single
velocity sample taken on the water surface can be seen from their ū eM 1 1 ¯␰
⫽␾⫽ ⫺ ⫽ ln 1⫹ 共 e M ⫺1 兲 (22)
close agreement with the velocity data. The mean values of M and u max e ⫺1 M M
M
␰ max
h/D values represent prior knowledge about the channel section
that can be used to help recognize a velocity distribution when in which ¯␰ is ␰ at which u⫽ū. When u max occurs at y⫽D⫺h or
velocity samples would indicate only a fuzzy pattern due to mea- at a distance h below the water surface, ␰ max⫽1 and hence ¯␰ /␰ max
surement errors or the number of samples being too small. can be expressed on the y axis as

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Fig. 6. Estimation of M, ␾, and ū from h/D and u max : 共a兲 velocity distribution in a circular channel section (u/ū obs) and 共b兲 velocity distribution
on y axis in a circular channel

冉 冊
ȳ ȳ which the velocity is equal to ū rises to maintain the constant
¯␰ ratio ȳ/D. Fig. 8 describes five velocity distribution patterns at
D D
⫽ exp 1⫺ (23) M ⫽1, 2, 3, 5.6, and 6, respectively, and the relative locations of
␰ max h h u max and ū on each of these velocity profiles. ȳ/D and h/D are
1⫺ 1⫺
D D constant at a given channel section but will vary from section to
section along the channel if the M value varies from section to
Note that ȳ in Eq. 共23兲 denotes the location of the point on the y
section. Note that ȳ/D quickly jumps from 0.161 to 0.368 as M
axis, at which the velocity is equal to the cross-sectional mean
increases from 5.6 to 6, only a small increment. This is an inter-
velocity ū or Q/A. It is not the location of the point where the
esting phenomenon.
velocity is equal to the vertical mean on the y axis.
Substitution of Eq. 共23兲 into Eq. 共22兲 gives the relation among
M, h/D, and ȳ/D when u max occurs below the water surface. Eqs.
共18兲 and 共22兲 give relations of h/D and ȳ/D to M as shown by Energy and Momentum Coefficients
Fig. 7. At a channel section, when the discharge and hence the
water depth D increase, the point at which u max occurs dips The energy and momentum coefficients are needed for applying
deeper into the water to increase h in order to maintain the con- the one-dimensional energy and momentum equations along an
stant ratio h/D at a channel section. At the same time, the point at open-channel flow. These coefficients are defined as u 3 /ū 3 and

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Fig. 7. Relation of M to locations of mean and maximum velocities
u 2 /ū 2 , respectively, in which u 3 , u 2 , and ū are the mean values of
u 3 , u 2 , and u, respectively. Estimations of these mean values are
difficult in the physical space, especially in natural channels, be-
cause of the difficulty in obtaining the area averages in channel
cross sections of complex or irregular shapes. In the probability
domain, however, u 3 , u 2 , and ū can be obtained as the math-
ematical expectations of u 3 , u 2 , and u by using the probability
density function f (u) in Eq. 共3兲. Eq. 共12兲 already showed that ū
expressed in its ratio to u max is a function of M. The energy and
momentum coefficients also can be derived as the following func-
tions of M:
共 e M ⫺1 兲 2 关 e M 共 M 3 ⫺3M 2 ⫹6M ⫺6 兲 ⫹6 兴
␣⫽ (24)
关 e M 共 M ⫺1 兲 ⫹1 兴 3
共 e M ⫺1 兲关 e M 共 M 2 ⫺2M ⫹2 兲 ⫺2 兴
␤⫽ (25)
关 e M 共 M ⫺1 兲 ⫹1 兴 2
Therefore the energy and momentum coefficients also should be
constant at a channel section and can be obtained from the M
value of a channel section by using Fig. 9 that represents Eqs.
共24兲 and 共25兲. Accurate values of energy coefficients enable ac-
curate computations of energy gradients, water surface profile,
Fig. 8. Relative locations of u max and ū
J. Hydraul. Eng. 2002.128:390-398.
Fig. 9. Relation of M to energy and momentum coefficients
and flow forecasting along a channel. The values of ␣ and ␤ given
by Eqs. 共24兲 and 共25兲 appear reasonable but have not been experi-
mentally tested; therefore they should be treated as mathematical
predictions at the present time. Testing of ␣ and ␤ requires a large
quantity of velocity measurement in a channel section and is be-
yond the scope of the work presented herein.
Summary and Conclusion
The magnitude and location of maximum velocity in a channel
section contain valuable information that can be employed to ease
the data collection, help understand physical processes, and im-
prove the design and control of hydraulic engineering systems.
The location of maximum velocity as well as that of mean veloc-
ity is a function of M, a velocity distribution parameter. M is also
the parameter of information entropy H and the probability den-
sity function f (u/u max) underpinning the velocity distribution.
The parameter M also has a mathematical relationship with ␾, the
ratio of the mean and maximum velocities. These relationships
can be used to determine M and ␾ from the location of the maxi-
mum velocity, and vice versa, to simplify the velocity sampling
for determining the velocity distribution and the 共cross-sectional兲
mean velocity. Maximum velocity, measured or estimated through
velocity sampling at one or more points on the y axis, multiplied
by ␾ gives the 共cross-sectional兲 mean velocity. This technique
greatly eases discharge measurements, especially in unsteady
flows.
Regularities in open-channel flows can be found by observa-
tion, and observation can be aided by theoretical analysis as
shown herein. Results of analyzing a large quantity of laboratory
and field data presented herein and elsewhere consistently showed
that the mean values of ␾ and M are stable and constant at a
channel section, invariant with time and discharge. Under the
probability concept, it means that the probability distribution
function underpinning the velocity distribution is resilient and
that the various flows that may occur at a channel section are
governed by the same probability distribution. It explains the
regularities that exist in various flow patterns observable at a
channel section, which can be summarized and represented by the
following constants: M, ␾, h/D, ȳ/D, and energy and momentum
coefficients. These constants are useful in hydraulic engineering.
Although constant at a channel section they may vary from sec-
JOURNAL OF HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING / APRIL 2002 / 397
 tion to section along a channel, owing to the variation of local
constraining factors such as the alignment, slope, roughness, geo-
metric shape, and hence the velocity and shear stress distributions
and secondary currents.
Acknowledgments
This paper is based on work partially supported by the Water
Resources Bureau, ROC. The writers thank Linda Lehman, Hadi
Emdad, and Shih-Meng Hsu, graduate students, Department of
Civil Engineering, University of Pittsburgh, for providing some
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Gebze Yuksek Teknoloji Enstitusu on 05/24/14. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.
of the results from their data analysis.
Notation
The following symbols are used in this paper:
A ⫽ cross-sectional area of a channel section;
B ⫽ channel width at the water surface;
D ⫽ water depth at y axis;
f ⫽ friction factor;
g ⫽ gravitational acceleration;
h ⫽ parameter in ␰, location of maximum velocity
below the water surface;
M ⫽ parameter of velocity distribution equation;
N R ⫽ Reynolds number;
Q ⫽ discharge through a channel;
R ⫽ pipe radius;
R h ⫽ hydraulic radius;
r ⫽ radial distance from the center of a pipe;
s f ⫽ energy slope;
u ⫽ flow velocity at ␰,
ū,u max ⫽ cross-sectional mean and maximum values of u;
u D ⫽ surface velocity on y axis;
u ⫽ shear velocity;
* running partially full.’’ J. Hydraul. Eng., 126共4兲, 263–275.
y ⫽ distance above channel bed at the vertical axis on
which u max occurs;
ȳ ⫽ y at which u⫽ū;
Z y ,␴ ⫽ mean and standard deviation of distance of y axis
from a reference point, respectively;
␣, ␤ ⫽ energy and momentum coefficients, respectively;
␧ 0 ⫽ momentum transfer coefficient at channel bed;
␯ ⫽ kinematic viscosity of fluid;
␰ ⫽ coordinate used in a velocity distribution equation;
¯␰ ⫽ ␰ at which u⫽ū;
␳ ⫽ fluid density;
␶ 0 ⫽ mean boundary shear stress; and
398 / JOURNAL OF HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING / APRIL 2002
J. Hydraul. Eng. 2002.128:390-398.
␾ ⫽ ratio of ū to u max and is a function of M.
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