Energy Analysis for Transient-Leak Interaction and

Implication to Leak Detection in Water Pipeline Systems

Bin Pan 1; Alireza Keramat 2; and Huan-Feng Duan, M.ASCE 3
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Abstract: Any transient event in a pipeline system is an energy process, implying that the dynamic response can be interpreted and analyzed
through energy transfer between different forms, including potential (internal), kinetic, and losses. This water hammer energy approach to
investigating the impacts of leaks uncovers notable insights about transient-leak interaction in fluid-filled pipelines. In this paper, the energy
exchanges in leaky conveyance pipeline systems, including elastic and viscoelastic pipes with various leak sizes and locations, are analyzed
and compared with intact pipe cases, thus revealing the extent to which a leak can vary the transient internal and kinetic energy intensity.
The results are supported by an extensive numerical analysis that describes transient energy in different cases and illustrates transient stability
conditions from a new perspective. Finally, practical implications for developing transient-based leak detection methods are drawn specifi-
cally when data from multiple stations are available, and the limitations of this study are summarized in the end of the paper. DOI: 10.1061/
JHEND8.HYENG-13348. © 2023 American Society of Civil Engineers.
Author keywords: Pipeline; Transient flow; Pipe leak; Transient energy analysis; Energy exchange.

Introduction
Fluid transportation by pipelines is a mature technology in modern
industries. Many industries, such as petrochemical and chemical
productions, rely on pipeline systems for raw substance transpor-
tation, product shipping, and energy exchange. Although the fluid
transportation by the pipeline is simple, there are many problems
and uncertainties during operation and management. For example,
opening or closing valves and starting or stopping pumps will cause
transient flows in the system (Chaudhry 2014; Wylie et al. 1993),
which causes fatigue problems in all system ingredients. Over time,
these loads on the pipe wall cause aging and corrosion, primarily
manifested by leakages. Pipe failure is a key concern for pipeline
industries, resulting in devastating environmental impacts and en-
ergy and resource losses. Nevertheless, a deeper understanding of
fluid transients in pipe systems has recently been suggested as
promising system control and condition assessment tools. Transient
flows comprise the propagation of vast bandwidth waves demon-
strated in flow rates and pressures that can carry a large amount of
valuable information, specifically about leaks and other defects.
For example, the existence of a leak will cause wave reflections
that change the transient signal (compared with the defect-free
system), generating specific signatures by which the leak can be
localized and sized, referred to as the transient-based leak detection
1
Postdoctoral Fellow, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
Hong Kong Polytechnic Univ., Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR
999077, PR China. Email: bin.pan@connect.polyu.hk
2
Research Assistant Professor, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engi-
neering, Hong Kong Polytechnic Univ., Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong
SAR 999077, PR China. Email: alireza.keramat@polyu.edu.hk
3
Associate Professor, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
Hong Kong Polytechnic Univ., Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR
999077, PR China (corresponding author). ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000
-0002-9200-904X. Email: hf.duan@polyu.edu.hk
Note. This manuscript was submitted on May 13, 2022; approved on
May 4, 2023; published online on June 29, 2023. Discussion period open
until November 29, 2023; separate discussions must be submitted for in-
dividual papers. This paper is part of the Journal of Hydraulic Engineer-
ing, © ASCE, ISSN 0733-9429.
(Lambert et al. 2003). However, a transient has spatial- and time-
dependent behavior. In other words, the transient waves measured
at different locations and time moments are significantly different,
so analyzing the transients from a single location cannot compre-
hensively characterize the state of a system (Duan et al. 2017; Che
et al. 2021). In addition, inspecting the transient phenomenon from
its flow and pressure historical traces, which supplement each
other, is another benefit achieved through the transient energy
analysis conducted in this study.
Traditionally, the energy analysis in pipelines primarily focused
on analyzing the energy consumption and loss at the steady-state
(Cabrera et al. 2015; Colombo and Karney 2002, 2005; Dziedzic
and Karney 2015; Filion et al. 2004), and estimating and analyzing
the energy consumption at the steady-state in the pipeline can help
people better operate a pipeline network system. In addition to the
steady state, unsteady flow states are also common in operation.
Compared with the steady state, the energy variation and exchange
are more significant than that in the steady-state flow. Therefore,
some researchers tried to investigate a transient event from an en-
ergy perspective to obtain a general overview of the system state at
a specific time moment. Pioneered by Karney (1990), he derived
the energy equation based on a transient event’s temporal and spa-
tial data. His formulations allowed for studying the energy ex-
change during the transients, which can offer a decisive property
of a pipe system (Karney 1990). After that, this approach is further
applied to study the difference in frictional models (Duan et al.
2017, 2018), analyze the energies in pipe networks (Karney et al.
2014) and viscoelastic pipes (Duan et al. 2010a, b; Pan et al. 2022a,
b), evaluate errors in frequency response models (Lee 2013), and
validate the proposed methods (Ranginkaman et al. 2019). With the
energy approach, we have known that although the unsteady fric-
tional effect and pipe wall viscoelasticity are more dependent on
the transient intensity, their effects are almost opposite along the
pipeline due to the contradictory tend of head and discharge along
the pipeline (Pan et al. 2022b). However, all these studies focused
on intact (defects-free) systems, thus limiting their applications to
characterize pipes with faulty sections and to link the energy analy-
sis to currently developed defect detection methods.

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J. Hydraul. Eng., 2023, 149(9): 04023031

 Recently, the so-called energy transmission coefficient in a
transient flow has been extended to study pipeline defects. For
example, Che et al. (2019) used it to examine frequency shifts
caused by nonuniform blockages, finding that the transmitted en-
ergy is frequency-dependent in nonuniform blockage cases. Zhou
et al. (2018) considered the thermal conduction and convection of
entrapped air pockets in transient conditions, providing an insight-
ful view of the heat exchange and energy dissipation by the air-
water interaction. Rokhzadi and Fuamba (2021) analyzed the
energy exchange in a closed conduit transient mixed flow with an
entrapped air pocket, concluding that the water and air ratio influ-
ences the energy exchange. Cao et al. (2022) investigated the tran-
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method development for leak detection applications in realistic
water pipe systems.
Methodology
Derivation of Transient Energy Equations for a Leaking
Pipeline System
The mass and momentum equations for a fluid-filled pipeline
(elastic or viscoelastic) with a leak can be expressed as (Wang
et al. 2002; Wang 2002):

sient energy exchange coupled with the fluid-structure interaction,

and the effect of a buffer-blocked riser subjected to heavy motions gA ∂H gA Q ∂H ∂Q ∂ε
þ 2 þ þ 2A r þ ql δðx − xl Þ ¼ 0 ð1Þ
is also investigated in their research. Yet, compared with the impact a2 ∂t a A ∂x ∂x ∂t
of a blockage or an air pocket, a leak is more common and trouble-
some because it causes direct fluid mass and energy losses in pipe
1 ∂Q ∂H Q ∂Q πD ρfQ2
systems. The direct energy loss through a defect (e.g., a leak or þ þ 2 þ ðsignðQÞ
burst) will cause damping to the transient waves, and further analy- gA ∂t ∂x gA ∂x ρgA 8A2
Z t
sis has shown that the damping waves are frequency-dependent. 4ρν ∂Qðt 0 Þ 0 Qql δðx − xl Þ
þ Wðt − t 0 Þ 0 dt Þ − ¼ 0 ð2Þ
Thus, in previous research, the damping ratios of different harmon- DA 0 ∂t gA2
ics are derived either in the time domain or frequency domain (Du
et al. 2020, 2021, 2023; Gong et al. 2013; Lee et al. 2005; Wang where H = piezometric head; Q = discharge rate; ql = leaking rate;
et al. 2002; Wang 2002), showing that the damped waves are as- g = gravitational acceleration; a = elastic wave speed; A = cross-
sociated with the defect properties and can be used for defect sectional area of the pipe; t = time coordinate; x = position coor-
detection (e.g., leakage, burst, and blockage detection). Although dinate; D = diameter of the pipe; ρ = density of the fluid (herein is
the information from the wave attenuation can be utilized for de- water); f = frictional factor; ν = kinematic viscosity of the fluid;
fect characterization (Brunone et al. 2018; Capponi et al. 2020; and εr = total retarded response of viscoelastic pipes, which is
Meniconi et al. 2014, 2018; Ramos et al. 2004; Rokhzadi and ignored for elastic pipes. In viscoelastic pipes, it is quantified by a
Fuamba 2021; Wang et al. 2002; Wang 2002), the effects of leak linearized Kelvin-Voigt model (Covas et al. 2005):
size and location are similar in the wave damping as confirmed by
Brunone et al. (2018) and Capponi et al. (2020). Therefore, ana- X
n

lyzing the transient damping traces cannot help researchers fully εr ¼ εk ð3Þ
k¼1
understand the influence of a leak on a transient event, which is
an issue to be addressed in this study. The other essential point
is the distinction between leak size and location signatures, and where εk = retarded response of kth K-V elements given by:
as the effect of a leak on other energy forms (e.g., the energy caused Z t J k −ϑti 0
by steady friction, unsteady friction, and pipe wall viscoelasticity), εk ¼ Ψðx; t − t 0 Þ e k dt ;
will play a vital role in transient-based leak detection methods. This 0 ϑk
research aims to acknowledge the transient energy—represented αρgD
Ψðx; tÞ ¼ CðHðx; tÞ − H 0 ðxÞÞ; C¼ ð4Þ
by the pressure and flow rate time series throughout the pipe 2e
domain—as a tool to characterize leaks in a pipe system. Major
applications in the leak detection context are expected in cases with C = a lumped coefficient; α = a coefficient depending on pipe-
where data from several measurement stations are available. line constraint conditions; J k = creep compliance of the kth K-V
To this end, the transient energy analysis is applied herein to element; and ϑk = retardation time of the kth K-V element; the εk
quantify the energy loss from leaks during unsteady pipeline proc- has the following relationship with head:
esses, aiming to investigate the influence of a leak on different en-
Xn  
ergy forms in leaking systems. Two types of pipelines—made from ∂ε
elastic and viscoelastic materials that are commonly used in indus- CJ k H ¼ ϑ k k þ εk ð5Þ
k¼1
∂t
tries nowadays—at different leaking scenarios are comparatively
examined from the transient energy perspective. Thereafter, the
various influences of leak properties (size and location) are inves- Regarding the fourth term in Eq. (2), WðtÞ = weighting function
tigated by extensive numerical cases, and the conclusions of this based unsteady friction model (Vardy and Brown 2003, 2004):
research are given at the end of the paper. This study targets to  
lg 14.3
0.05
conduct energy evaluations in a leaky system so that providing R

D e−λt 0.54νR0 0
an overall image of the pipeline system, which demonstrates the WðtÞ ¼ pffiffiffi pffiffiffiffiffi ; λ¼ ð6Þ
signatures of a leak. In the real practice of the new generation 4 ν πt D2
of pipe conveyance systems and networks, when the systems are
monitored with several pressure transducers and flow meters, such and λ = convolution coefficient of the unsteady friction model for
an image obtained from the collected data can help render clues different flow conditions.
on possible leaks in the system. It is also noted that this study The last term in Eqs. (1) and (2) contains the Dirac Delta
is primarily aimed to gain such theoretical understanding and pre- function (which has the dimension of m−1 ) with the following
liminary numerical validations, rather than transient energy-based properties:

© ASCE 04023031-2 J. Hydraul. Eng.

J. Hydraul. Eng., 2023, 149(9): 04023031

  Z
∞ if x ¼ xl xl þσ 3. Energy exchange through boundaries:
δðx − xl Þ ¼ ; and lim δðx − xl Þdx ¼ 1 Z t
0 otherwise σ→0 xl −σ 2
Einout jtt21 ¼ ρg½HðL; tÞQðL; tÞ − Hð0; tÞQð0; tÞdt ð13Þ
ð7Þ t1

in which σ = an infinitely small distance on either side of the leak. in which t1 and t2 are the starting and ending time moments of
Through the dimensional analysis, the last term in Eq. (2) and the energy transformation process, respectively;
the convective terms, i.e., the second term in Eq. (1) and the 4. Energy flowing out from the leak
third term in Eq. (2), are negligible for transient pipe flows Z t
2
leak t2
and are dropped in the energy analysis. Thus, as proved in the Eout jt1 ¼ ρgql ðtÞHðxl ; tÞdt ð14Þ
Supplemental Materials (Sections S1and S2), the energy equation t1

in a viscoelastic pipeline with a leak is obtained as: Note that ql ðtÞ and QðL; tÞ are always non-negative in real-
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Z Z world pipeline systems, and it is assumed that no flow invades

Aρg2 d L 2 ρ d L 2 from the outside of the pipeline, even in negative pressure
H ðx; tÞdx þ Q ðx; tÞdx
2a2 dt 0 2A dt 0 cycles.
þ ρg½QðL; tÞHðL; tÞ − Qð0; tÞHð0; tÞ þ ρgql ðtÞHðxl ; tÞ 5. Energy form of the retarded viscoelastic response:
Z  Z Z  X
αADρ2 g2 L XN
Jk t2 αADρ2 g2 t2 L N
Jk
þ Hðx; tÞ ½Hðx; tÞ − Hðx; 0Þ EVE jt1 ¼ Hðx; tÞ ½Hðx; tÞ − Hðx; 0Þ
e 0 ϑ
k¼1 k
e t1 0 ϑ
k¼1 k

X t
N Z  X t
N Z 
J −t0 J −t0
− ½Hðx; t − t 0 Þ − Hðx; 0Þ k2 e ϑk dt 0 dx − ½Hðx; t − t 0 Þ − Hðx; 0Þ k2 e ϑk dt 0 dxdt
k¼1 0
ϑk k¼1 0
ϑk
Z L
4 2
ρfQ ðx; tÞ ð15Þ
þ
D 0 8A2
Z t 0
 6. Energy form from the frictional effect:
4ρν 0 ∂Qðx; t Þ 0 Z Z 
þ Wðt − t Þ dt Qðx; tÞdx ¼ 0 ð8Þ 4 t2 L ρfQ2 ðx; tÞ
DA 0 ∂t 0 Ef jtt21 ¼
D t1 0 8A2
where ql ðtÞ = instantaneous leaking rate at the time moment t; Z t 
4ρν ∂Qðx; t 0 Þ 0
and L = length of the pipeline. The result of Eq. (8) expresses þ Wðt − t 0 Þ dt Qðx; tÞdxdt ð16Þ
the relations between different energy forms in a leaking visco- DA 0 ∂t 0
elastic pipeline system. When there is no leak in the system
[i.e., ql ðtÞ ¼ 0], the equation is the same as an intact (no leak) According to transient/water hammer literature (Vardy and
system. The definitions and transfers of different energy forms Brown 2003, 2004), the energy caused by the frictional effect can
are illustrated in the next section. be further divided into two parts, namely the energy by steady fric-
tion (denoted as Esf ) and unsteady friction (denoted as Euf ):

Different Energy Forms in Transient Analysis Ef jtt21 ¼ Esf jtt21 þ Euf jtt21 ð17Þ
To arrive at a deep understanding of a leakage impact on the Z Z
ρf t2 L
transient energy, the form of Eq. (8) can be written as Esf jtt21 ¼ jQ3 ðx; tÞjdxdt ð18Þ
2DA2 t1 0
∂Ep ∂Ek Z Z L Z 
þ þ Einout þ Eleak
out þ EVE þ Ef ¼ 0 ð9Þ 4πρν ∂Qðx; t 0 Þ 0
∂t ∂t Euf jtt21 ¼
t2 t
Wðt − t 0 Þ dt Qðx; tÞdxdt
A2 t1 0 0 ∂t 0
in which the definition of each term in this equation is as follows:
1. Instantaneous energy of elasticity: ð19Þ
Z Theoretically, these different energy forms have been defined
Aρg2 L 2
Ep ðtÞ ¼ H ðx; tÞdx ð10Þ above. However, in practical analysis, the energy associated with
2a2 0
the steady friction and the leak may be different from Euf and EVE .
2. Instantaneous kinetic energy: In a word, Esf and Eleak
out exist even if there is no transient in the
Z system, whereas the effect of unsteady friction pipe wall viscoelas-
ρ L
ticity stems from the transient. Compared with Esf and Eleak
Ek ðtÞ ¼ Q2 ðx; tÞdx ð11Þ out in the
2A 0 steady-state, the transient-induced changes at the oscillatory con-
In addition to Eqs. (10) and (11), the elastic and kinetic dition are relatively small. However, many defect detection meth-
energy forms can also be quantified at each discretized pipe ods highly rely on these small changes (e.g., the frequency response
section by: function-based methods), especially those (i.e., the change in Eleak
out )
that directly influence the system responses. Therefore, Eleak out is
Aρg2 2 ρ 2 approximately divided into the steady and unsteady parts herein,
Ep ðx; tÞ ¼ H ðx; tÞdx; Ek ðx; tÞ ¼ Q ðx; tÞdx
2a2 2A that is:
ð12Þ
out j0 ¼ ðEout j0 Þ þ ðEout j0 Þ ð20Þ
t leak t s leak t u
Eleak
It is worth noting that the elastic and kinetic energy exchange
is the main driving force for transient oscillation in any transient in which the superscripts s and u stand for the steady and unsteady
system. components, which can be calculated by:

© ASCE 04023031-3 J. Hydraul. Eng.

J. Hydraul. Eng., 2023, 149(9): 04023031

 ðEleak
out j0 Þ ¼ ρgql ð0ÞHðxl ; 0Þt;
t s Table 2. General information of tested cases

ðEleak Evaluated
out j0 Þ ¼ Eout j0 − ðEout j0 Þ ð21Þ
t u leak t leak t s
factor Minimum Maximum Interval lp xl Δτ
in which the second equation of Eq. (21) can be interpreted as the lp 5% 50% 5% — 0.5 0.4
net energy caused by the transient for the leak, and it is equivalent xl 0.1 0.9 0.1 20% — 0.4
to a linearization process used in the transient research.
It is worth noting here that the energy exchange through boun-
daries compensates for the energies attenuated by different factors
describing the retarded response of the pipe wall. Herein, the tran-
in the oscillatory flow system (Pan et al. 2022a), which equals the
sient in the system is triggered by periodically changing (oscillat-
summation of energy lost through friction, pipe wall viscoelasticity,
ing) the valve opening coefficient at the fundamental frequency,
and leak. Thus, the assessment of the influences of these energy
as shown in Eq. (22), as information obtained from this single
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forms gives implications on the energy associated with boundaries

that are not displayed.
Numerical Systems for Energy Analysis
In the current study, two RPV systems (as shown in Fig. 1), namely
an elastic and a viscoelastic water-pipe systems, respectively, are
applied for numerical investigations, in which some complicated
factors from practical water-pipe systems (e.g., complex pipe con-
nections and data noises) are not included in the analysis. The wave
speed of the elastic system is 1,000 m=s, whereas that of the vis-
coelastic system is about 385 m=s. Except for the wave speed and
pipe wall materials, the other parameters of both systems are the
same as shown in Table 1. For the viscoelastic system, one element
Kelvin-Voigt model in which the creep compliance is 0.687 ×
10−10 Pa−1 and the retardation time is 0.155 s is adopted for
frequency is adequate for system characterization (Lee 2013). The
intensity to trigger the transient is quantified by the change of the
valve opening coefficient ðΔτ Þ:
τ ¼ τ 0 ð1 þ Δτ sinðω1st tÞÞ ð22Þ
in which τ = valve opening coefficient; Δτ = the dimensionless
oscillating amplitude; the subscript 0 stands for the initial steady-
state; and ω1st = fundamental frequency.
In this study, the influences of the leak size (which is quantified
by the leaking percentage (denoted as lp ¼ ql =ðql þ QðL; 0ÞÞ ×
100%Þ, leak location (herein is represented by xl ¼ xl =L ) are
studied. When one factor is studied, other factors will be fixed,
as shown in Table 2, in which the energy in the corresponding intact
system is also provided for comparison.
Results and Discussion

This section serves as a demonstration of the developed formula-

tions to identify the leakage contribution in the transient energy.
By using Eqs. (10)–(21), the energy forms in the foregoing systems
are calculated for different scenarios and are presented in separate
sections.

Spatial- and Time-Dependent Energy Behavior in Intact

Fig. 1. Schematic of the conveyance pipeline system for investigation.
Table 1. The information about the tested systems
Items Unit
L m
D m
e m
α —
f —
Hð0; ∶Þ m 20
QðL; 0Þ m3 =s
and Leaky Pipe Systems
The spatial- and time-dependent behavior stems from different
magnitudes of the head and discharge oscillations along the pipe-
line (Louati et al. 2020). To this end, the Ep and Ek forms in both
elastic and viscoelastic systems are examined for the intact and
leaky systems to emphasize the impact of a leak. A moderate
oscillation (e.g., Δτ ¼ 0.4) is applied for transient excitation,
whereas other excitation modes will be inspected later in this paper.
In the leaky case, the leak is placed at the middle of the pipeline
(i.e., xl ¼ 0.5) with leaking size lp ¼ 20% at the steady-state. The
variations of Ep and Ek in both testing pipeline systems are shown
in Fig. 2.
The results of Fig. 2 show clearly that the key difference in the
energy variation between the intact and leaking systems is attrib-
uted to the discontinuity in the kinetic energy/discharge due to
the leakage. Meanwhile, slightly smaller amplitudes of the Ep
oscillation in the leaking system are also noticed, suggesting less
severe head oscillation in the leaking system. Compared with the
Values elastic system, the magnitudes of the Ep and Ek fluctuations in
300 the viscoelastic system are significantly larger. This is primarily due
0.06 to the large difference in wave speed between these two systems
0.006 (i.e., different pipe materials). Unlike the transient caused by the
1.29 fast closure of a valve, the system will accumulate energy before
0.0295 achieving a stable oscillation in the system. Therefore, the mag-
nitude of the pressure oscillation and energy transfer under the
5.6 × 10−4
oscillatory condition may be much larger than those by the sudden

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Fig. 2. Comparison of different energy forms in the intact and leaking systems: (a) Ek and (c) Ep for the intact elastic system; (b) Ek and (d) Ep for the
leaking elastic system; (e) Ek and (g) Ep for the intact viscoelastic system; and (f) Ek and (h) Ep for the leaking viscoelastic system.

valve closure. Although the magnitude of the head oscillation in the
elastic system is larger, the stored and released elastic energy are
much larger in the viscoelastic system for the studied case due to its
lower wave speed, resulting in significant variations in the elastic
and kinetic energy in the viscoelastic system. Because this research
focuses on the influence of different leak characteristics, the influ-
ence of leakage on different oscillation magnitudes and other en-
ergy forms is not shown here, and for this kind of influence, readers
can refer to the Supplemental Materials S3 and S4 if necessary. In a
word, the existence of a leak only affects the magnitude of these
energies but does not affect the trends of them.
Influence of Different Leak Characteristics
In addition to the spatial- and time-dependent energy behavior, en-
ergy exchange in the pipeline system is also affected by different
leak characteristics. Previous research has shown that the leak size
and location directly affect the pressure surge damping (Brunone
et al. 2018; Capponi et al. 2020; Pan et al. 2022a), but the pressure
damping is related to energy in the system. Therefore, it is neces-
sary to investigate the influence of different leaks from the energy
point of view. To this end, this section investigates the impact of
different leaks on the system energy.

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 Impact on the Elastic and Kinetic Energies
First, the influence of leaks in terms of their size and location is
investigated by the energy phase diagram in which the Ek and Ep
variations are represented by ΔEp ¼ ðEp − Ep0 Þ=Ep0 and ΔEk ¼
ðEk − Ek0 Þ=Ek0 in the diagram (Ek0 ¼ Ek ð0Þ and Ep0 ¼ Ep ð0Þ) for
a fair comparison. The energy phase diagram can directly show the
energy variation in elastic and kinetic energy compared with their
initial state. Again, the tested leaking systems provided in Table 2
are applied for analysis, and their elastic and kinetic energy changes
are plotted in Fig. 3. The results show that the size of the enclosed
diagram curve becomes smaller with the increase of lp and xl .
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In the energy phase diagram with the same excitation, a smaller
size represents less energy variation in the system and thus more
energy attenuation/loss during the oscillation. Therefore, compared
with initial values, the Ep and Ek variations are smaller in the sys-
tem with a larger leak or in the system where the leak is near the
downstream valve.
In addition, it is also noticeable for the shape difference between
the elastic and viscoelastic pipeline systems. More specifically,
Fig. 3 shows that the elastic system has a larger variation in elastic
energy, whereas the kinetic energy variation in the viscoelastic sys-
tem is more significant than the elastic energy. This phenomenon
can also be observed in Fig. 3 and can be explained as follows.
On the one hand, in the elastic system, because of the large wave
speed, the magnitude of Ep and its variation are significantly
smaller than those in the viscoelastic system at the same oscillatory
conditions. In this condition, the amount of energy transfer from
Ep to Ek is smaller than that in the viscoelastic system, shaping
a smaller variation range in ΔEk in the elastic system. On the other
hand, the behavior of the pipe wall viscoelasticity in some ways
is similar to that of the elastic energy in the viscoelastic system.
Therefore, EVE also exchanges energy with other energy forms,
including Ek and Ep , leading to differences in ΔEk and ΔEp var-
iations in these two systems.
Fig. 3. Energy phase diagrams for different leak scenarios: (a) elastic system with different leak sizes; (b) viscoelastic system with different leak sizes;
(c) elastic system with different leak locations; and (d) viscoelastic system with different leak locations.
© ASCE
J. Hydraul. Eng., 2023, 149(9): 04023031
Impact on Other Energies in the System
To further understand the influence of leak size and location, the
contributions of the remaining energies (i.e., Esf , Euf , EVE , and
ðEleak
out Þ ) are plotted in Figs. 4 and 5. Before analyzing what hap-
u
pens in the system, the main changes induced by increasing the
leak size and location must be emphasized as follows: (1) the
mean flow will inevitably increase in both pipelines; and (2) both
systems will become inactive to the perturbation; in other words,
the change of the discharge and head becomes less significant
(the decreasing size of the energy phase diagram can directly re-
flect this, as shown in the Supplemental Materials S3). Therefore,
it is not surprising that the contribution of steady friction increases
whereas Euf and EVE decrease with the increase of the lp and xl
in both systems. Considering that ðEleak out Þ has the same trend
u
in Figs. 4 and 5, it is somehow impossible to differentiate the in-
fluence of leak size and location from the energy point of view
at the studied frequency. In fact, previous research also found that
systems with different leaks may have the same envelope curve
regarding pressure damping (Brunone et al. 2018; Capponi et al.
2020). Although the transient in their study is different from our
cases and caused by the fast full closure of the downstream valve,
still, our results and their results are comparable because the main
energy in their cases is carried by the fundamental transient wave
whose frequency is similar to the excited frequencies used in the
systems herein. Meanwhile, the similarity of the results in Figs. 4
and 5 raises a question—what is the difference between the influ-
ence of the leak size and location, which will be discussed in the
following section.
Signatures of the Leak Size and Location on the
Energy Terms
Differentiating the influence of leak size and location plays an
important role in transient-based leak detection methods. In a
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Fig. 4. Contribution of different energy forms for different leak sizes: (a) Esf ; (c) Euf ; (e) EVE ; and (g) Eleak
out for the elastic system; and (b) Esf ;
(d) Euf ; (f) EVE ; and (h) Eleak
out for the viscoelastic system.

fluid-filled pipeline system in which the transient is caused by the
fast closure of a valve, different leak locations will affect the arrival
time of the leak-induced reflected/transmitted waves, and the leak
size influences the amplitude of those waves (Brunone 1999;
Jönsson and Larson 1992). However, it is very difficult to discuss
their difference through Figs. 4 and 5 or the envelope curve about
pressure damping as they provide a time-averaged quantity. In fact,
the influence of the leak size and location at each moment is dif-
ferent in terms of dissipated energy content, and this will cause
different signatures on the transient traces and leave clues for leak
detection. For example, Fig. 6 plots the energy leaking rates of the
studied cases above, in which one can clearly identify their differ-
ence. Compared with the influence of the leak location, which pri-
marily affects the amplitude of the ∂Eleak
out =∂t oscillations, the leak
size affects both oscillating amplitudes and levels of the energy
leaking rates. The analogous signatures of the leak size and location
on the transient oscillation amplitudes uncover the reason behind
the correlation between these two leak parameters, which has been

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Fig. 5. Contribution of different energy forms for different leak locations: (a) Esf ; (c) Euf ; (e) EVE ; and (g) Eleak
out for the elastic system; and (b) Esf ;
(d) Euf ; (f) EVE ; and (h) Eleak
out for the viscoelastic system.

widely reported in numerical and experimental studies (Brunone
et al. 2018; Capponi et al. 2020; Lee et al. 2005; Pan et al. 2022a).
Another difference is that the influence of the leak location on
the leaked energy is frequency-dependent, whereas the leak size
only affects the magnitude of the response (Louati et al. 2020). For
a transient event in the pipeline system, the oscillation pattern of the
transient flow/energy amplitudes along the pipeline is frequency-
dependent and will affect the behavior of the leak. To be more spe-
out Þ will be more significant if
cific, the fluctuation and value of ðEleak u
the leak is located at the place where the oscillation amplitude is
larger. For a clear demonstration, the oscillation amplitudes along
the pipeline for both systems are plotted for the studied systems in
Fig. 7, in which the oscillation amplitudes caused by τ oscillating at
the 3rd harmonic mode are provided for comparative analysis. The
results show clearly that the oscillating amplitudes of both systems
at the 1st mode decrease from the downstream boundary to the up-
stream boundary. This indicates that the fluctuation and value of the
leaked energy will increase with the increase of xl , which makes

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Fig. 6. Variation rates of leaking energy with different leak characteristics: (a) leak size and (c) leak location for the elastic system; and (b) leak size;
and (d) leak location for the viscoelastic system.

Fig. 7. Transient magnitudes along the pipeline for different oscillations with Δτ ¼ 0.4 in: (a) elastic system; and (b) viscoelastic system.

leak location influence similar to leak size. On the other hand,
due to the different oscillating amplitudes along the pipeline at the
3rd harmonic mode, the trend of leaked energy is different in terms
of the leak size and location, as shown in Fig. 8. It is worth noting
that a transient system is an approximately linear system. In other
words, the system response at a specific frequency is due to the
input containing that frequency, and there is no energy exchange
between the energies of different modes. From this point of view,
the energy also conserves for each frequency and the system re-
sponse (e.g., head at the downstream valve) can directly reflect the
energy in the system. For example, the leaked energy ratio at dif-
ferent modes for a period is also frequency-dependent, and can be
approximately represented by (The detailed derivation can be found
in Supplemental Materials S5):
We have also examined how the presence of a leak impacts the
t0 þT n u
Eout j
leak t0 T sin2 ðπ nx Þ
un ¼ n 2 π2 l ð23Þ
Eout jt0 þT m T m sin ð2 mxl Þ
leak t0
m
in which n and m = wave number used to excite the system, and
T = the period of a specific frequency. Eq. (23), in fact, shows
the energy relations after the linearization of the energy results.
Therefore, the leaked energy is different for different modes, and
eventually, the influence of leaked energy will be reflected by the
head, which could be used for leak localization (Wang et al. 2002;
Wang 2002). Besides, Eq. (23) also suggests that we can also use
the leaked energy for leak localization once it can be quantified.
Implications of Energy Theories for Leak Detection
The previous sections have presented the theories required to es-
timate the energy content of a system during a transient event.
system’s energy, including its potential and kinetic components.
Our findings, illustrated in Figs. 2–5, clearly indicate that the en-
ergy levels of leaky and intact systems differ, suggesting that this

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Fig. 8. Energy loss in the system at different leak scenarios for transient oscillation at the 3rd harmonic mode (Δτ ¼ 0.4): (a) leak location and
(c) leak size for the elastic system; and (b) leak location and (d) leak size for the viscoelastic system.

observation could serve as a foundation for developing energy-
based leak detection methods. Whereas this study does not attempt
to address the complex inverse problem of identifying the number,
size, and location of leaks, it does demonstrate the potential of
utilizing transient energy to develop new detection methods. The
rationale behind this approach is that leaky pipes cannot retain the
same amount of energy as their intact counterparts. This fundamen-
tal principle could be applied to each section of the pipe, enabling
more accurate localization and size estimations.
To explore this potential further, we present a sample of po-
tential leak detection methods that use the principle of transient
energy. It is noted that this approach has been inspired by the
energy-based techniques utilized in damage detection, with a
typical strategy illustrated as following procedure.
1. A transient flow is generated in the system.
2. Pressure measurements are taken at various locations in the
system.
3. The measured pressure data, in combination with a transient
model based on the mathematical model for an intact pipe
[Eqs. (1) and (2)], is utilized to construct the pressure and flow
rate time histories for the entire pipe domain. These time his-
tories enable the evaluation of the energy content of the sys-
tem for the generated transient event, as described in Eqs. (8)
and (9).
4. Alternatively, the energy content of the intact system for the
generated transient event can be computed without the need for
pressure measurements. By knowing the initial and boundary
conditions and the governing equations, the entire time and
space domain can be solved, allowing for the computation of
the energy terms, according to Eqs. (8) and (9).
5. The outcomes of steps 3 and 4 yield two distinct scalar values,
indicating the presence of defects. It is noted that although the
transient model used in step 3 is based on a leak-free pipe, the
retained leak signatures on the measured data lead to variations
in the quantified energy in comparison with the leak-free
system.
6. The above-mentioned approach can be utilized to localize leaks
in any system: the energy of each section in a single pipe prob-
lem can be evaluated to pinpoint the leaky section. Likewise,
the entire energy of each pipe in a complex network pipe system
can be used to identify the leaky pipe among all pipes in the
network.
Notably, the principle of energy variation between intact and
faulty systems in structural damage detection, which shares similar
hyperbolic equations to the water hammer, is a well-established
and widely recognized approach. Indeed, energy-based damage
detection methods have received greater acceptance than others
(Qiao and Esmaeily 2011; Shi et al. 2000). Therefore, the cur-
rent research is expected to provide a foundation for developing
a new class of leak detection methods based on transient energy.
However, it is also noted that the results of this study are obtained
largely through theoretical analysis and numerical simulations,
whereas further experimental validations and verifications will be
required in future work, especially for transient energy based leak
detection method development.
Conclusions
Flowing energy is important to the operation and management of
many industrial pipeline systems. In this paper, the transient energy
analysis is developed and conducted to investigate the energy trans-
fer and dissipation among different forms in both intact and leaking
pipelines made with elastic and viscoelastic pipe materials. To this
end, the expressions of all potential energy forms and their relation-
ships during the transient flow process are first derived based on the
transient wave equations. Based on derived energy results, exten-
sive numerical cases are then conducted to investigate different

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J. Hydraul. Eng., 2023, 149(9): 04023031

 energy behavior and the influences of leak size and location in pipe-
line systems. The main results and findings of this study can be
summarized as follows:
1. Compared with the variation of the elastic energy, that of the
kinetic energy is more significant in the viscoelastic systems
when the system is excited by a single-frequency wave.
2. The energy exchange/attenuation in the transient pipe system
is greatly affected by leak size and location. When the leak is
close to the downstream boundary and/or has a large size, more
energy will be lost, which results in less significant energy varia-
tion between elastic energy and kinetic energy with the oscillat-
ing perturbation in the system.
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3. The influence of the leak location is highly frequency-
dependent and affected by the head variation along the pipeline,
while that of leak size affects only the magnitude of the energy
variation (i.e., frequency-independent). This result explains the
damping mechanism and principle of the current transient-based
leak detection methods from the energy perspective.
Finally, it is also noted that although only a simple pipe con-
figuration (e.g., uniform and single pipeline) with a single leak is
investigated in this study, the energy analysis method, the results,
and the conclusions of this study are also extendable for other com-
plex pipeline systems or systems with burst/blockage. Although the
influence of the leak on the system response is investigated herein,
the work is primarily based on numerical modeling and theoretical
investigation, whereas more experimental validations and verifica-
tions should be done to link the results from previous research work
to the developed energy analysis and to practical applications in the
future. Meanwhile, how to obtain enough data for transient energy
analysis for real tests and defect detection is also an important issue
to be addressed in future studies.
Data Availability Statement
All data, models, or code generated or used during the study are
available from the corresponding author by request.
Acknowledgments
This research work was partially supported by the Research Grants
Council (RGC) of the Hong Kong University Grants Committee
(UGC) under Project No. 15200719.
Supplemental Materials
Eqs. (S1)–(S18), Figs. S1–S5, and Tables S1–S3 are available
online in the ASCE Library (www.ascelibrary.org).
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