Flow over the hump in rectangular channel

Steady uniform flow is interrupted by a raised bed level as shown. If the upstream depth and
𝑉2
discharge are known we can use equation [ 𝐻 = 𝑦 + 2 𝑔 + 𝑧 ] and the continuity equation to
give the velocity and depth of flow over the raised hump. (Neglect the loses due to friction)

Figure 1 the uniform flow interrupted by a raised hump

Apply the Bernoulli equation between section 1 and 2 (assume a horizontal rectangular
channel 𝑧1 = 𝑧2)

𝑽𝟐𝟏 𝑽𝟐𝟐
∴→ 𝒚𝟏 + = 𝒚𝟐 + + ∆𝒛
𝟐𝒈 𝟐𝒈
𝑽𝟐𝟏 𝑽𝟐𝟐
But ( 𝑬𝟏 = 𝒚𝟏 + , 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑬𝟐 = 𝒚𝟐 + ) (𝑬 𝒊𝒔 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒄𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚)
𝟐𝒈 𝟐𝒈
∴→ 𝑬𝟏 = 𝑬𝟐 + ∆𝒛
Example 1:A rectangular channel with a flat bed and width 5m and maximum depth 2m has
a discharge of 10m3/s. The normal depth is 1.25 m. What is the depth of flow in a section in
which the bed rises 0.2m over a distance 1m. Assume frictional losses are negligible.

Page 1 of 15
Solution:

𝑬𝟏 = 𝑬𝟐 + ∆𝒛

𝟏𝟎
𝑽𝟐𝟏 ( )𝟐
𝑬𝟏 = 𝒚𝟏 + = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓 + 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓 ∗ 𝟓 = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟖 𝒎
𝟐𝒈 𝟐 ∗ 𝟗. 𝟖𝟒
𝟏𝟎 𝟐
𝑽𝟐𝟐 ( ) 𝟎.𝟐𝟎𝟑𝟗
𝒚𝟐∗𝟓
And 𝑬𝟐 = 𝒚𝟐 + 𝟐 𝒈 = 𝒚𝟐 + 𝟐∗𝟗.𝟖𝟒 = 𝒚𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐𝟐
∆𝒛 = 𝟎. 𝟐 𝒎
𝟎. 𝟐𝟎𝟑𝟗
𝑬𝟏 = 𝑬𝟐 + ∆𝒛 → 𝟏. 𝟑𝟖 = 𝒚𝟐 + + 𝟎. 𝟐 [ 𝒃𝒚 𝒎𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒊𝒑𝒍𝒚 𝒚𝟐𝟐 ]
𝒚𝟐𝟐
→ 𝒚𝟑𝟐 − 𝟏. 𝟑𝟖 ∗ 𝒚𝟐𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟐 𝒚𝟐𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟐𝟎𝟑𝟗 = 𝟎

→ 𝒚𝟑𝟐 − 𝟏. 𝟏𝟖 𝒚𝟐𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟐𝟎𝟑𝟗 = 𝟎

Again this can be solved by a trial and error method:

y2 E2
0.96 1.18
Note: The depth of the raised section is 0.96m or the water level is 1.16m (0.2+0.96) a drop of
9cm (1.25-1.16) when the bed has raised 20cm.

Example 2: A rectangular channel 6 m wide discharges 1 8 m3/s at a depth of 2.8 m. If the

bed is raised in a small reach by 0.3 m, find the depth of flow in the reach.

Solution:

𝑬𝟏 = 𝑬𝟐 + ∆𝒛
𝟏𝟖
𝑽𝟐𝟏 (𝟐. 𝟖 ∗ 𝟔)𝟐
𝑬𝟏 = 𝒚𝟏 + = 𝟐. 𝟖 + = 𝟐. 𝟖𝟓𝟖 𝒎
𝟐𝒈 𝟐 ∗ 𝟗. 𝟖𝟒
𝟏𝟖 𝟐
𝑽𝟐𝟐 ( ) 𝟎.𝟒𝟓𝟗
𝒚𝟐∗𝟔
And 𝑬𝟐 = 𝒚𝟐 + = 𝒚𝟐 + = 𝒚𝟐 +
𝟐𝒈 𝟐∗𝟗.𝟖𝟒 𝒚𝟐𝟐
∆𝒛 = 𝟎. 𝟑 𝒎
𝟎. 𝟒𝟓𝟗
𝑬𝟏 = 𝑬𝟐 + ∆𝒛 → 𝟐. 𝟖𝟓𝟖 = 𝒚𝟐 + 𝟐
+ 𝟎. 𝟑 [ 𝒃𝒚 𝒎𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒊𝒑𝒍𝒚 𝒚𝟐𝟐 ]
𝒚𝟐
𝟑 𝟐 𝟐
→ 𝒚𝟐 − 𝟐. 𝟖𝟓𝟖 ∗ 𝒚𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟑 𝒚𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟒𝟓𝟗 = 𝟎

→ 𝒚𝟑𝟐 − 𝟐. 𝟓𝟓𝟖 𝒚𝟐𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟒𝟓𝟗 = 𝟎

Again this can be solved by a trial and error method

𝒚𝟐 = 𝟐. 𝟒𝟖𝟒 𝒎
Note: The depth of the raised section is 2.484 m or the water level is 2.784 (0.3+2.484) a drop
of 1.6cm (2.8-2.784) when the bed has raised 0.3cm
Page 2 of 15
Flow measurement structures:
When the water available from a particular source is
limited and must be used very carefully, it is useful,
and even necessary, to measure the discharge at
various points in the system and the flow at farmers’
intakes. Also, where farmers have to pay for the water
used, discharges should be measured. Flow
measurements may also be useful for management the
distribution of the water. In addition, measurement of
the flows can provide important information about the
functioning of the irrigation system.

Discharges can also be measured with the use of

discharge measurement structures, such chapter, weirs
and flumes

Weirs
Weirs are sharp-crested, overflow structures that are
built across open canals. They are easy to construct
and can measure the discharge accurately when
correctly installed. However, it is important that the
water level downstream is always below the weir
crest; otherwise, the discharge reading will be
incorrect (see figure 2).

Types of weirs Figure 2 Weirs

Examples of three well-known weir types are
illustrated: the Rectangular weir the trapezoidal weir and the V-notch weir (Figure3).

As can be seen in the figure, the Rectangular weir has a rectangular opening.

The trapezoidal weir is in fact an improved rectangular weir, with a slightly higher capacity
for the same crest length. Its opening is trapezoidal with the sides inclining at a slope of 4
(vertical) to 1 (horizontal).

The V-notch weir has a triangular opening, and this type is well suited to measuring small
flows with high accuracy.

Flume
Other well-known structures for discharge measurement are flumes. Flumes consist of a
narrowed canal section with a particular, well-defined shape.

Page 3 of 15
Types of flumes
Three of the most common types of measuring flumes are illustrated. They are the Parshall
flume (Figure 4), the Cut-throat flume, and the RBC flume.

A Parshall flume consists of three principal sections: a converging section at the upstream end,
a constricted section or throat in the middle and a diverging section downstream. The floor of
the throat slopes downwards and the diverging section has slopes upwards. It is shown in
Figure 4, together with plan and longitudinal section views.

Parshall flumes have standard dimensions which must be followed closely in order to obtain
accurate measurements.

Figure 4 Parshall flumes

Weirs for flow measurement

They are easy to construct and can measure the discharge accurately when correctly installed.

Page 4 of 15
 Figure 5 Parameters for Flow over a Sharp Crested Weir
The parameters shown in Figure 5 are as follows:

• Q = volumetric flow rate over the weir (cfs – U.S., m3/s – S.I. units)
• H = the head over the weir, that is the height of water above the weir crest, measured
upstream of the drawdown effect (ft – U.S., m - S.I. units)
• P = the height of the weir crest above the bottom of the channel (ft – U.S., m –S.I.
units)

A. V- Notch Weir (Triangular weir)

The easiest V notch weir configuration for calculation of flow rate is a fully contracted, 90o V
notch weir. Equation (1) and (2) are recommended calculation of discharge.

𝑄 = 2.49 𝐻2.48 ………. (1)

Subject to:𝑷 ≥ 𝟐 𝑯𝒎𝒂𝒙, 𝑺 ≥ 𝟐 𝑯𝒎𝒂𝒙,

Where: The Equation (1) are for U.S. units, with Q
in cfs and H, P & S in ft

• P = the height of the V notch vertex above

the channel bottom
• S = the distance V notch opening at the top
of the water overflow to the channel wall.
• Hmax = the maximum expected head over
the weir (figure 6).

Figure 6 V-Notch Weir Parameters

Page 5 of 15
𝑄 = 1.36 𝐻2.48 ……………………………………………………………. (2)

Subject to:𝑷 ≥ 𝟐 𝑯𝒎𝒂𝒙, 𝑺 ≥ 𝟐 𝑯𝒎𝒂𝒙,

Where: The Equation (1) are for S.I. units, with Q in cfs and H, P & S in m

• For H, P & S are the V-Notch Weir Parameters (Figure 6)

Example 2: Calculate the flow rate for the minimum recommended head (0.2 ft)
over a fully contracted V notch weir and the flow rate for the maximum
recommended head (1.25 ft) over a fully contracted V notch weir.

Solution: Substituting H = 0.2 ft and H = 1.25 ft into Equation (1) gives the following

Qmin = (2.49) (0.22.48) = 0.046 cfs = Qmin

Qmax = (2.49)(1.252.48) = 4.33 cfs = Qmax

Notch angles other than 90o lead to a bit more complicated calculation. The, recommends the
use of Equation (3),and (4) below (known as Carter equation) for V notch weirs with a notch
angle other than 90o.
𝟓
𝜽
𝑸 = 𝟒. 𝟐𝟖 𝑪𝒆 𝑻𝒂𝒏 ( ) (𝑯 + 𝒌)𝟐 …………………………… (3)
𝟐

The parameters in this equation and their required units are as follows:

• Q = the discharge over the weir in cfs

• H =the head over the weir in ft
•  =the angle of the V notch
• Ce = the effective discharge coefficient, which is dimensionless (An equation for Ce
as a function of  is given below.)
• K is a head correction factor in ft (An equation for k as a function of  is given
below.)

𝑪𝒆 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟎𝟕𝟏𝟔𝟓𝟎𝟓𝟐– (𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟖𝟕𝟒𝟒𝟔𝟔𝟗𝟔𝟑)𝜽 + (𝟔. 𝟏𝟎𝟑𝟗𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 − 𝟔)𝜽𝟐

𝒌 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟒𝟒𝟗𝟎𝟐𝟔𝟒𝟖 – (𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟑𝟑𝟗𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟑𝟓)𝜽

+ (𝟑. 𝟐𝟗𝟖𝟏𝟗𝟎𝟎𝟑 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 )𝜽𝟐 (𝟏. 𝟎𝟔𝟐𝟏𝟓𝟒𝟒𝟐𝒙𝟏𝟎)𝜽𝟑 𝒇𝒕
Where: 𝜃 is the angle of v-notch.

For use with S.I. units, the Carter equation changes slightly to become
𝟓
𝜽
𝑸 = 𝟑. 𝟐𝟔 𝑪𝒆 𝑻𝒂𝒏 ( ) ∗ (𝑯 + 𝒌)(𝟐) …………………………… (4)
𝟐

Where:
Page 6 of 15
Q is in m3/s and H& k are in m.

𝑪𝒆 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟎𝟕𝟏𝟔𝟓𝟎𝟓𝟐– (𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟖𝟕𝟒𝟒𝟔𝟔𝟗𝟔𝟑)𝜽 + (𝟔. 𝟏𝟎𝟑𝟗𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 − 𝟔)𝜽𝟐

𝒌 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟎𝟒𝟖[ 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟒𝟒𝟗𝟎𝟐𝟔𝟒𝟖 – (𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟑𝟑𝟗𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟑𝟓)𝜽

−
+ (𝟑. 𝟐𝟗𝟖𝟏𝟗𝟎𝟎𝟑 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 )𝜽𝟐 – (𝟏. 𝟎𝟔𝟐𝟏𝟓𝟒𝟒𝟐 𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟖 )𝜽𝟑 ] 𝒎

Example 3: Estimate the flow rate through a fully contracted V notch weir with a head over
the weir of 1.25 feet for a) a notch angle of 30o, b) a notch angle of 70o, and c) at notch angle
of 90o. Use the Carter equation [Equation (3)] for all three notch angles.

Solution: These calculations consist of substituting the value of  into Equation (4) to
calculate Ce, and into Equation (5) to calculate k. Then values of Ce, k, , and H are
substituted into Equation (3) to calculate the flow rate, Q. The solution for the three notch
angles is summarized in the table below.

H, ft  degrees Ce k, ft Q, cfs

1.25 30 0.585 0.0070 1.19

1.25 70 0.576 0.0032 3.03

1.25 90 0.578 0.0029 4.35

Canal Falls
Whenever the available natural ground slope is steeper than the designed bed slope of the
chan-nel, the difference is adjusted by constructing vertical 'falls’ or 'drops' in the canal
bed at suitable intervals, as shown in figure 7.

Such a drop in a natural canal bed will not be stable and, therefore, in order to retain this
drop, a masonry structure is constructed, called a canal fall or a canal drop.

Figure 7

Page 7 of 15
Types of Canal Fall
Depending on the ground level conditions and shape of the fall the various types of fall are:

1. Ogee fall
This type of fall has gradual convex and concave surfaces i.e. in the ogee form. The gradual
convex and concave surface is provided with an aim to provide smooth transition and to reduce
disturbance and impact.

Figure 8 Ogee Fall

2. Stepped fall
It consists of a series of vertical drops in the form of steps. This step is suitable in places where
sloping ground is very long and requires a long glacis to connect the higher bed level u/s with
lower bed level d/s. it is practically a modification of rapid fall. The bed of the canal within the
fall is protected by rubble masonry with surface finishing by rich cement mortar.

Figure 9 Stepped fall

Page 8 of 15
 3. Vertical fall (Sarda fall)
In the simple type, canal u/s bed is on the level of upstream curtain wall, canal u/s bed level is
below the crest of curtain wall. In both the cases, a cistern is formed to act as water cushion.
Floor is made of concrete u/s and d/s side stone pitching with cement grouting is provided.

Figure 10 Vertical Fall

4. Rapid fall
When the natural ground level is even and rapid, this rapid fall is suitable. It consists of long
sloping glacis. Curtain walls are provided on both u/s and d/s sides. Rubble masonry with
cement grouting is provided from u/s curtain wall to d/s curtain wall. Masonry surface is
finished with a rich cement mortar.

Figure 12 Rapid Fall

Page 9 of 15
 5. Glacis Fall
It consists of a straight glacis provided with a crest wall. For dissipation of energy of flowing
water, a water cushion is provided. Curtain walls are provided at toe and heel. Stone pitching
is required at upstream and downstream of the fall.

Figure 13 Glacis Fall

6. there other types like well or Cylinder Notch Fall and Montague Type Fall

Hydraulic Design of Canal Falls

Vertical drop fall: The energy is dissipated by means of impact and deflection of velocity,
suddenly from the vertical to the horizontal direction.

Design of Sarda Fall Type

1. Crest
i. Length of crest:
The length of crest is kept equal to bed width; it is also possible to extend the
length to bed width plus depth.
ii. Shape of crest
For Q < 15 cumec, the section is kept rectangular with the d.s. face absolutely
𝑑
vertical. The top width 𝐵𝑡 = 0.55√𝑑 and minimum base width= 2
where d is the height of crest above d.s. bed level.
It may be capped with 25 cm 1:2:4 cement concrete with its both ends
rounded.

For Q  15 cumec , a trapezoidal section with top width 𝐵𝑡 = 0.55√𝐻 + 𝑑with

u.s. side slope of 1H:3V and d.s. slope of 1H: 8V is adopted.
a. Rectangular crest fall
b. Trapezoidal fall

Page 10 of 15
 Figure 14 Shapes of Crest in Sarda fall

iii. Crest level

𝟑
𝑯 𝟏
𝑸 = 𝑪 ∗ 𝑳𝒕 ∗ 𝑯𝟐 ∗ (𝑩𝒕)𝟔

Lt = Length of crest
Bt = Width of crest
HL = Drop in water surface
h2 = Depth of d.s. water level over top of crest
ha = Head due to velocity of approach Va2 2 g
C = 1.84 for rectangular crest
2.26 for trapezoidal crest

Height of crest above bed U.S. = D + kinetic energy - H

= U.S. F.S.L + head of velocity – H

For fall over 1.5, the stability of the crest wall should be test

2. U.S. Approaches
i. U.S. protection
Brick pitching in a length equal to u.s. water depth should be laid on u.s. bed
towards the crest at a slope 10H:1V.
ii. U.S. curtain wall (cut-off)
The thickness of curtain wall equal to 1½ brick and depth equal to 1/3 U.S.
water depth + 0.6 m, be provided with min. 0.8 m
3. Cistern
i. Length of cistern
𝟏
Cistern length 𝑳𝒄 = 𝟓(𝑯𝑳 ∗ 𝑯)𝟐
ii. Depth of cistern (X)
1 2
𝑋 = × (𝐻 ∗ 𝐻𝐿)3
4

Page 11 of 15
 4. D.S. Protection
i. Bed protection
Brick pitching about 20 cm thick resting on 10 cm ballast in a length equal 3
times d.s. water depth.
ii. Curtain wall
The thickness of curtain wall may be 1½ brick thick and depth = ½ (d.s. water
depth) +0.6 with minimum 1 m,

Design Example 1:

Design a Sharda type fall with the data given below:

u.s.
i. Full supply flow rate = 10 cumec
d .s.
ii. Drop 1m
u.s. 1.5 m
iii. Full supply depth =
d .s. 1.5 m
u.s. 100 m
iv. Bed level =
d .s. 99 m
u.s. 8 m
v. Bed width =
d .s. 8 m
vi. Side slopes 1 H: 1V

Solution
1. Length of crest
Take crest length = Lt = 8 m
2. Crest level
Since Q < 15 cumec, use rectangular crest with both sides vertical.
𝟑
𝑯 𝟏
𝑸 = 𝑪 ∗ 𝑳𝒕 ∗ 𝑯𝟐 ∗ (𝑩𝒕)𝟔

Assume Bt = 0.8 m
𝟑 𝟏
𝟏 𝟏
𝟏𝟎 = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟒 ∗ 𝟖 ∗ 𝑯𝟐 ∗ 𝑯𝟔 (𝟎.𝟖)𝟔
H= 0.775 say H=0.78 m
𝑄 10
Velocity of approach (with 1:1 side slopes) 𝑉𝑎 = = (8+0.5∗1.5∗1.5)∗1.5
= 0.73
𝐴

Va2 0.7022 𝑉𝑎2 0.732

Velocity head = = 0.025 m = = 0.027 𝑚
2 g 2  9.81 2∗𝑔 2∗9.81

𝑈. 𝑆. 𝑇. 𝐸. 𝐿. = 𝑢. 𝑠. 𝐹. 𝑆. 𝐿. +ℎ𝑎 = 101.5 + 0.027 = 101.527 𝑚

𝐿𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 (𝑈. 𝑆. 𝑇. 𝐸. 𝐿 − 𝐻) = 101.527 − 0.78 = 100.747 𝑚
Adopt crest level = 100.747 m

Page 12 of 15
3. Shape of crest
i. Top width
𝐵𝑡 = 0.55√𝑑 , d= 100.747 – 99 = 1.747 m
= 0.55 ∗ √1.747 = 0.73
Adopt Bt = 0.75 m.
Check for Q,
1 1/6
10 = 1.84 ∗ 8 ∗ 𝐻1.67 ∗ ( )
0.75
H=0.77 m
ii. Width of base 0.5 ∗ 𝑑 = 0.5 *1.747 = 0.87 say 1 m
Its top shall be capped with 20 cm thick cement concrete.
4. U.S. protection
Brick pitching in a length equal to u.s. water depth = 1.5 m should be laid on the u.s.
with a slope of 1:10 downwards and
5. U.S. curtain wall (cut-off)
The thickness of curtain wall equal to 1½ brick and depth equal to 1/3 U.S. water
depth + 0.6 m, be provided with min. 0.8 m
U.S. curtain wall depth = 1/3 * 1.5 +0.6 = 1.1
6. Cistern
i. Length of cistern
𝟏
Cistern length 𝑳𝒄 = 𝟓(𝑯𝑳 ∗ 𝑯)𝟐
𝟏
= 𝟓(𝟏 ∗ 𝟎. 𝟕𝟕)𝟐 = 4.38 m say 4.5 m
ii. Depth of cistern

1 2
𝑋= × (𝐻 ∗ 𝐻𝐿)3
4
2
1
𝑋= × (0.77 ∗ 1)3 = 0.21 m
4

Cistern depth X= 0.21 m say 0.25 m

7. D.S. Protection
i. Bed protection
Length of bed protection = 3D3 = 3 1.5 = 4.5 m
Provide 4.5 m long dry brick pitching resting on 10 cm ballast
ii. D.S. curtain wall
The curtain walls at d.s. end of floor should be 1½ brick thick and of depth
(d 2 + 0.6 m ) to a minimum of 1 m.
1.5
Depth of curtain wall at d.s. end floor = + 0.6 = 1.35 m
2

Page 13 of 15
Design Example 2:
Design a Sharda type fall with the data given below:
u.s.
vii. Full supply flow rate = 30 cumec
d .s.
viii. Drop 1m
u.s. 1.4 m
ix. Full supply depth =
d .s. 1.4 m
u.s. 102 m
x. Full supply level =
d .s. 101 m
u.s. 100.6 m
xi. Bed level =
d .s. 99.6 m
u.s. 23 m
xii. Bed width =
d .s. 23 m

Canal escape:
It is a structure required to dispose of excess water from canal from time to time.

A canal escape helps as a safety valve for canal system.

Types of escapes based on the purpose served are:

1. Surplus water escape.

It is also called regulator type. In this type sill of the escape is kept at canal bed level and the
flow is controlled by a gate. This type of escapes are preferred now-a-days as they give better
control and can be used for employing the canal for maintenance.

Figure 15 Surplus water escape.

Page 14 of 15
 2. Tail escape.

A tail escape is provided at the tail end of the canal and is useful in maintaining the required
FSL in the tail reaches of the canal and hence, they are called tail escape.

3. Canal scouring escape.

This escape is constructed for the purpose of scouring of excess silt deposited in the head
reaches from time to time. Hence, it is called scouring escape. Here the sill of the regulator is
kept at about 0.3 m below the canal bed level at escape site. When deposited silt to be
scoured, a higher discharge than the FSL is allowed to enter the canal from the head works.
The gate of the escape is raised so as to produce scouring velocity which removes the
deposited silt. This type of Escape has become obsolete as silt ejector provided in the canal
can produce better efficiency.

This structure serves the following functions:-

1. Provides protection from possible damages of overtopping or leaks due to excess
water of supply.
2. Emptying canal for repair and maintenance and removed of sediment deposited in the
canal.

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