Different instruments are utilized to measure the flow of fluids, with the Bernoulli's

Energy Theorem being widely employed. Understanding the unique characteristics and
coefficients of each instrument is crucial. When credible values and coefficients are not
available, the instrument must be calibrated for the anticipated operating conditions.

Device Coefficients

Coefficient of Discharge, C or Ca

The coefficient of discharge is a measure that represents the proportion of actual

fluid flow through a device compared to the hypothetical fluid flow that would occur
without any losses. It can be expressed as:

𝐴𝐶𝑇𝑈𝐴𝐿 𝐷𝐼𝑆𝐶𝐻𝐴𝑅𝐺𝐸 𝑄
C or C4= 𝑇𝐻𝐸𝑂𝑅𝐸𝑇𝐼𝐶𝐴𝐿 𝐷𝐼𝑆𝐶𝐻𝐴𝑅𝐺𝐸 = 𝑄𝑇

Where Q is the actual discharge (measured by observing the total amount of fluid
passing through the device over a known period), and QT is the theoretical discharge
(calculated using Bernoulli's Theorem while neglecting losses). The actual fluid flow
through the device can be determined through a series of observations, typically by
measuring the total amount of fluid that passes through the device over a specific period
of time. The theoretical discharge can be calculated using the Bernoulli's theorem,
assuming no losses occur.

Coefficient of Velocity, Cv

The coefficient of velocity is a measure that represents the proportion of actual

fluid velocity to the theoretical velocity that would occur without any losses. It can be
expressed as:

𝐴𝐶𝑇𝑈𝐴𝐿 𝑉𝐸𝐿𝑂𝐶𝐼𝑇𝑌 𝑣
Cv = 𝑇𝐻𝐸𝑂𝑅𝐸𝑇𝐼𝐶𝐴𝐿 𝑉𝐸𝐿𝑂𝐶𝐼𝑇𝑌 = 𝑣𝑡
Where v is the actual mean velocity and vT is the theoretical velocity (calculated
assuming no losses occur).

Coefficient of Contraction, Cc

The coefficient of contraction is a measure that represents the proportion of the

actual area of the fluid stream or jet to the area of the opening through which the fluid
flows. It can be expressed as:

𝐴𝑅𝐸𝐴 𝑂𝐹 𝑆𝑇𝑅𝐸𝐴𝑀 𝑂𝑅 𝐽𝐸𝑇 𝑎

Cc = == 𝐴
𝐴𝑅𝐸𝐴 𝑂𝐹 𝑂𝑃𝐸𝑁𝐼𝑁𝐺

Where a is the actual area of the stream or jet, and A is the area of the opening through
which the fluid flows.

Relationship between the Three Coefficients

Actual Discharge, Q = C x Q1

Also

Q = Actual area, a x Actual velocity, v

Q = CcA x Cvvt

Q = CcCvQt

But Avt=Qt

Q = CcCvQt

From Equations (1) and (2)

C = Cc x Cv

The coefficient of discharge is not constant for a given device and it changes with
the Reynolds number. The values of coefficient of discharge for different devices can be
found in Table 6-1 in the case of a vertical sharp-edged orifice.
 Table 6.1.1

Head lost

Headloss, also known as energy loss, is the loss of pressure or energy that
occurs in a pipe or channel due to the turbulence caused by the velocity of the fluid and
the roughness of the pipe and channel walls or any fittings that may cause restrictions.
This loss is a result of friction losses and is not affected by changes in the elevation of
the hydraulic gradeline unless the hydraulic and energy lines are parallel. Formulas
such as Darcy-Weisbach, Hazen-Williams, and Manning can be used to calculate
headloss.

1 𝐴 𝑣2
𝐻𝐿 = (𝐶 2 − 1)(1 − (𝐴2 )2)2𝑔 Eq. 6-1
𝑣 1

If the orifice or nozzle takes off directly from a tank where A 1 is very much greater that
A2, then the velocity of approach is negligible and Eq. 6 -1 reduces to:
 1 𝑣2
𝐻𝐿 = ( − 1)
𝐶𝑣2 2𝑔

Note: v= actual velocity

Minor Losses

The energy losses that occur in pipelines as a result of bends, elbows, joints,
valves, etc. are often referred to as minor losses, but they can be significant in many
cases. These losses are more impactful than the losses due to pipe friction. In turbulent
flow, the head loss for all minor losses varies as the square of the velocity. A convenient
method of expressing these minor losses is through a loss coefficient (k). Standard
handbooks provide values for the loss coefficient (k) for common fittings and situations.
Darcy's equation can be used to calculate the minor losses of specific fluid system
components using Equation 3-15.

Equivalent Piping Length

Minor losses may be expressed in terms of the equivalent length (Leq) of pipe that
would have the same head loss for the same discharge flow rate. This relationship can
be found by setting the two forms of Darcy's equation equal to each other.

This yields two relationships that are useful.

Typical values of Leq/D for common piping system components are listed in Table 1. The
equivalent length of piping that will cause the same head loss as a particular component
can be determined by multiplying the value of Leq/D for that component by the diameter
of the pipe. The higher the value of Leq/D, the longer the equivalent length of pipe.

Table. 6.1.2
1. The figure illustrates a flow of fluid through a pipe, which is powered by compressed
air in a storage tank. The value of f is given as 0.014, and the amount of fluid flowing
through the pipe is measured at 13.60 liters per second.

a.) Find the velocity of the water in the pipe.

b.) Find the head loss in the pipe neglecting minor losses.

c.) Find the gage pressure needed to provide a flow rate of 13.60 liters/sec.

Solution:

a. Velocity of water in the pipe:

𝑄 = 𝐴𝑉

𝜋
0.0136 = (0.05)2 𝑉
4
𝑉 = 6.926423123
𝑽 = 𝟔. 𝟗𝟑 𝒎/𝒔
 b. Head loss in the pipe:
𝑓𝑙𝑉 2
ℎ𝑓 =
𝐷2𝑔
0.014(160)(6.93)2
ℎ𝑓 =
(0.05)2(9.81)
ℎ𝑓 = 109.6593028
𝒉𝒇 = 𝟏𝟎𝟗. 𝟔𝟔 𝒎

c. Gage pressure needed to provide a flow of 13.60 liters/sec.

𝑣12 𝑃1 𝑣22 𝑃2
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2 + 𝐻𝐿
2𝑔 𝑤 2𝑔 𝑤

𝑃1 (6.93)2
0+ + 10 = + 0 + 100 + 109.66
𝑤 2(9.81)

𝑷𝟏 = 𝟏𝟗𝟖𝟐. 𝟔𝟗𝒌𝑷𝒂

2. The speed at which oil is moving through a pipe that has a diameter of 30mm is 2
meters per second. The kinematic viscosity of the oil is 5 x 10-5 square meters per
second. The pipe has a total length of 120 meters.

a. Compute the Reynolds Number.

b. Compute the friction factor
c. Compute the head loss of the pipe.

Solution:

a. Reynolds number:
𝐷𝑉
𝑅𝑒 =
𝑣
0.30(2)
𝑅𝑒 =
5𝑥10−5

𝑹𝒆 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎 < 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎

 b. Friction Factor:
64
𝑓=
𝑅𝑒
64
𝑓 = 1200

𝒇 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝟑

c. Head loss:
𝑓𝐿𝑉 2
ℎ𝑓 =
𝐷2𝑔
0.053(120)(2)2
ℎ𝑓 =
(0.03)2(9.81)

ℎ𝑓 = 43.22120285

𝒉𝒇 = 𝟒𝟑. 𝟐𝟐

3. Three reservoirs' pipes connect at a point referred to as point C, which is located at a

height of 366 meters. It is assumed that all the pipes are made of PVC and have a
Hazen Williams C value of 150. The pressure at point C is 18.3 psi.

Pipeline Diameter (inches) Length (ft)

X 10 10000

Y 8 4000

z 12 5000

Find the head loss of pipeline x.

Solution:

𝑃
ℎ=
𝑊

18.3(144)
ℎ=
62.4

ℎ = 41.54 𝑓𝑡.

41.54
ℎ=
3.28

ℎ = 12.66𝑚

𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣. 𝑎𝑡 𝐷 = 336 + 12.66

𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣. 𝑎𝑡 𝐷 = 378.66𝑚

ℎ𝑓𝑥 = 411.6 − 378.66

𝒉𝒇𝒙 = 𝟑𝟐. 𝟗𝟒𝒎 –head loss of pipeline x

4. Water is flowing through a channel that is almost level and has a width of 30 meters.
The flow rate is 12 cubic meters per second. The depth of the channel gradually
increases from 1.0 meter to 1.1 meters over a distance of 5 meters. The head loss
caused by this increase in depth needs to be calculated.

Solution:

𝑉12 𝑉22
+ 𝑑1 = + 𝑑2 + 𝐻𝐿
2𝑔 2𝑔

𝑄
𝑉1 =
𝐴1

12
𝑉1 =
3(1)

𝑉1 = 4𝑚/𝑠

𝑄
𝑉2 =
𝐴2

12
𝑉2 =
3(1.1)

𝑉2 = 3.64𝑚/𝑠
 42 3.642
+ 1.0 = 2(9.81) + 1.1 + 𝐻𝐿
2(9.81)

𝑯𝑳 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒

5. A pipe system is made up of pipeline 1 that runs from point A to point B and is
connected to pipelines 2 and 3. At a junction point referred to as C, these pipes merge
together to form a single pipeline 4 that continues up to point D. Pipeline 1, 2, and 4 are
connected in a series, whereas pipelines 2 and 3 are connected in parallel. If the flow
rate from point A to point B is 10 liters per second, and the friction factor for all pipes is
assumed to be 0.02, the following calculations need to be made:

Pipelines Diameter Length

1 200mmø 3000m

2 300mmø 2200m

3 200mmø 3200m

4 400mmø 2800m

a. Rate of flow of pipeline 3.

b. Rate of flow if pipeline 2.
c. Total Head loss from A to D.

Solution:

a. Rate of flow of pipeline 3:

𝑄1 = 𝑄2 + 𝑄3
𝑄1 = 𝑄4

ℎ𝑓2 = ℎ𝑓3
 0.0826𝑓𝐿(𝑄2 )2 0.0826𝑓𝐿(𝑄2 )2
=
(𝐷)52 (𝐷)15

2200𝑄2 3200(𝑄3 )2
=
0.35 0.25

𝑄22 = 11.045𝑄32

𝑄2 = 3.323𝑄3

𝑄1 = 𝑄2 + 𝑄3

0.01 = 3.323𝑄3 + 𝑄3

𝑄3 = 0.00231

𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒔
𝑸𝟑 = 𝟐. 𝟑𝟏
𝒔𝒆𝒄

b. Rate of flow of pipeline 2:

𝑄2 = 3.323𝑄3
𝑄2 = 3.323(2.31)
𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒔
𝑸𝟐 = 𝟕. 𝟔𝟗
𝒔𝒆𝒄

c. Total head loss from A to D:

0.0826𝑓𝐿𝑄 2
ℎ𝑓1 =
𝐷15
0.0826(0.02)3000(0.01)2
ℎ𝑓1 =
(0.2)5

ℎ𝑓1 = 1.55𝑚

0.0826(0.02)2200(0.00769)2
ℎ𝑓2 =
(0.3)5

ℎ𝑓2 = 0.088𝑚

0.0826(0.02)2800(0.01)2
ℎ𝑓4 =
(0.4)5
 ℎ𝑓4 = 0.088𝑚

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐴 𝑡𝑜 𝐷:

𝐻𝐿 = ℎ𝑓1 + ℎ𝑓2 + ℎ𝑓3

𝐻𝐿 = 1.55 + 0.088 + 0.045

𝑯𝑳 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟖𝟑𝟖𝒎

One fun activity to teach about head loss in hydraulics is to create a pipe
obstacle course for a water flow. This can be done using PVC pipes and fittings to
create twists, turns, and constrictions in the flow path. Students can then measure the
pressure at various points in the course, and observe how the head loss (pressure loss)
changes as the flow encounters different obstacles. They can also experiment with
different flow rates and observe how the head loss changes. This activity can help
students understand the concept of head loss and how it relates to the design of real-
world hydraulic systems.
 An orifice is a hole in the wall of a container through which water may flow.
Generally, the wall is assumed to be thin and the edges of the hole square, but many
variations of geometry are possible. Figure 5-1 shows examples of orifices. When water
flows through a square-edged circular orifice, a contraction occurs, forming a jet with
minimum diameter a short distance from the inside edge of the orifice. As shown in
Figure 5-2, flow lines are parallel and closest together at section a-a. This point is
referred to as the vena contracta.

Discharge, Q, can be computed by using Bernoulli’s principle, treating the orifice

as a short hydraulic system with Station 1 within the reservoir and Station 2 at the vena
contracta. The datum can be assumed projecting horizontally through the center of the
orifice. Thus, from Equation 6.2,

𝑣12 𝑣22
ℎ1 + = ℎ2 + + ℎ1
2𝑔 2𝑔

Since the velocity is negligible at Station 1. V1 = 0 and since Station 2 is located

at a free discharge, p2 = 0, and since the datum runs through the center of the orifice, h 2
= 0. Thus Equation 6.2 becomes

𝒗𝟐𝟐
𝒉𝟏 = + 𝒉𝟏
𝟐𝒈

Figure 6.2.2. Examples of Orifices

 Figure 6.2.3. Jet Contraction in a square-edged circular orifice

The figure below shows a general case of fluid flow through an orifice. Let PA
and på be the air pressures in the chambers A and B, respectively and VA be the
velocity of the stream normal to the plane of the orifice (velocity of approach) Consider
two points 1 and 2 such that 24 and 2 and writing the energy equation between these
two points neglecting losses.

Figure 6.2.3. Fluid Flow through an Orifice

𝐸1 = 𝐸2
 𝑣12 𝑝1 𝑣22 𝑝2
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾

𝑣𝐴2 𝑝𝐴 + 𝛾ℎ 𝑣 2 𝑝𝐵
+ +0= + +0
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾

𝑣𝐴2 𝑝𝐴 𝑣 2 𝑝𝐵
+ +ℎ = +
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾

𝑣2 𝑝𝐴 𝑝𝐵 𝑣𝐴2
=ℎ+ − +
2𝑔 𝛾 𝛾 2𝑔

𝑣𝑎 𝑝𝐴 𝑝𝐵
√2𝑔(ℎ + +( − ))
2𝑔 𝛾 𝛾

Theoretical velocity, v1=√𝟐𝒈𝑯 Equation 6.2.1

Actual velocity, v =𝑪𝑫 √𝟐𝒈𝑯 Equation 6.2.2

Theoretical discharge, Q1=A√𝟐𝒈𝑯 Equation 6.2.3

Theoretical discharge, Q=CA√𝟐𝒈𝑯 Eq. 6.2.4

𝒗𝟐 𝒑𝑨 𝒑𝑩
𝑯 = 𝒉 + 𝟐𝒈𝑨 + − Eq. 6.2.5
𝜸 𝜸

Where H is the total head producing flow in meters or feet of the flowing fluid. It
can be noted in Eq.(6.2.5) that H is the sum of the flow energy upstream less the flow
energy downstream, or

H = Head Upstream – Head Downstream Eq. 6.2.6

1. A tank containing water is being lifted at a rate of 3 meters per second squared
and the water inside it is at a height of 2.4 meters. The speed at which the water
is being discharged from the tank through an orifice that is 2 centimeters in
diameter and located at the bottom of the tank needs to be calculated.

Solution:

𝑎
ℎ = (1 + )
𝑔

3
ℎ = 2.4(1 + )
9.81

ℎ = 3.13 𝑚

𝑉 = √2𝑔ℎ

𝑉 = √2(9.81)(3.13)

𝑉 = √2(9.81)(3.13)

𝑉 = 7.836491562

𝑽 = 𝟕. 𝟖𝟒 𝒎/𝒔
2. A tall cylindrical steel tank, 4 meters high, sits on level ground and is filled with
two layers of liquid. The bottom layer is water and is 2 meters deep. The top
layer is a liquid whose specific gravity is not known, and it is 1 meter deep. A
50mm diameter orifice with a coefficient of velocity of 0.98 is located 1 meter
from the bottom of the tank, and the jet from the orifice hits the ground 2.75
meters horizontally away from the vena contracta. The task is to determine the
specific gravity of the unknown liquid.

Solution:

1 2
𝑦= 𝑔𝑡
2

1
1 = (9.81)𝑡 2
2

𝑡 = 0.45𝑠𝑒𝑐.

𝑥 = 𝑉𝑡

2.75 = 𝑉(0.45)

𝑉 = 𝐶𝑣√2𝑔ℎ

6.11 = 0.98√2(9.81)ℎ

ℎ = 1.98𝑚

ℎ = 1 + 1(𝐺𝑠 )

𝑮𝒔 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟖
3. A tank is filled with water to a height of 4.3 meters above a 10mm diameter
orifice that is located on the side of the tank. If the orifice is 4.3 meters above the
ground, how far would the water have traveled horizontally?

Solution:
𝑉 = √2𝑔ℎ

𝑉 = √2(9.81)(4.3)
𝑉 = 9.185096624
𝑉 = 9.19𝑚/𝑠

𝑥 = 𝑉𝑡
1 2
𝑦= 𝑔𝑡
2

𝑥
𝑡=
𝑉
1(9.81)𝑥 2
4.3 =
2(9.19)2

𝒙 = 𝟖. 𝟔𝟎 𝒎
4. A cylinder-shaped vessel has an orifice located on its vertical side, and it is
positioned under a head "h". When water flows out of the orifice, it strikes a
horizontal plane that is 2.5 meters below the center of the orifice, and 2.5 meters
horizontally away from the vertical plane of the orifice. The task is to find the
value of "h".

Solution:
1 2
𝑦= 𝑔𝑡
2
1
1.5 = (9.81)𝑡 2
2
𝑡 = 0.71

2.5 = 𝑉(0.71)
𝑉 = 3.52𝑚/𝑠

𝑉 = √2𝑔ℎ

3.52 = √2(9.81)ℎ

ℎ = 0.6315188583

𝒉 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟑𝒎
 5. There are two open cylindrical tanks that are connected by an orifice with a
cross-sectional area of 0.004 square meters. Tank A has a diameter of 8 meters
and its water level is 10 meters above that of Tank B, which has a diameter of 5
meters. The coefficient of discharge for the orifice is 0.60.

a. Find the discharge flowing in the orifice.

b. How long will it be before the water surfaces at the same level?
c. How soon after will the water surfaces be 4m apart?

Solution:

a. Discharge flowing in the orifice:

𝑄 = 𝐶𝐴√2𝑔ℎ

𝑄 = 0.60(0.004)√2(9.81)(10)
𝑄 = 0.03361713849
𝑸 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟒 𝒎𝟑 /𝒔
b. Time for the water surface to be at the same level:
2𝐴𝐵√ℎ
𝑡=
(𝐴 + 𝐵)𝐶 𝐴𝑠 √2𝑔

𝜋(8)2
𝐴= = 50.27𝑚2
4

𝜋(5)2
𝐵= = 19.63𝑚2
4

2(50.27)(19.63)√10
𝑡=
(50.27 + 19.63)(0.60) (0.004)√2(9.81)

𝑡 = 8399𝑠𝑒𝑐.

𝒕 = 𝟐. 𝟑𝟑𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔

c. Time the water surface be 4m apart:

𝑥 + 4 + 𝑦 = 10
𝑥+𝑦 =6
𝐴𝑥 = 𝐵𝑦
50.27𝑥 = 19.63𝑦
𝑦 = 2.56𝑥
𝑥 = 1.69

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐴

𝑉𝑜𝑙. = 50.27(1.69)
𝑉𝑜𝑙. = 84.96𝑚3
 𝐶𝐴√2𝑔(√ℎ1 + √ℎ2 )
𝑄𝑎𝑣𝑒 =
2

0.60(0.004)√2(9.81)(√10 + √4)
𝑄𝑎𝑣𝑒 =
2

𝑄𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 0.027𝑚3

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑡=
𝑄𝑎𝑣𝑒

84.96
𝑡=
0.027

𝑡 = 3147𝑠𝑒𝑐.

𝒕 = 𝟓𝟐. 𝟒𝟓𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒔.

Orifice and Jet flow Activity

I. Introduction
An orifice is an opening, of any size or shape, in a pipe or at the bottom or side wall
of a container (water tank, reservoir, etc.), through which fluid is discharged. If the
geometric properties of the orifice and the inherent properties of the fluid are known, the
orifice can be used to measure flow rates. Flow measurement by an orifice is based on
the application of Bernoulli’s equation which states that there is a relationship between
the pressure of the fluid and its velocity. The flow velocity and discharge calculated
based on the Bernoulli’s equation should be corrected to include the effects of energy
loss and viscosity. Therefore, for accurate results, the coefficient of velocity (Cv) and the
coefficient of discharge (Cd) should be calculated for an orifice. This experiment is being
conducted to calibrate the coefficients of the given orifices in the lab.
 II. Practical Application
Orifices have various uses in engineering practice beyond measuring fluid flow in pipes
and reservoirs. Examples of this include the flow entering a culvert or storm drain inlet,
and the bottom outlet of a dam. To accurately predict flow rates from orifices, it is
essential to determine the coefficients of velocity and discharge.

III. Objective
The purpose of this laboratory experiment is to identify the coefficients of velocity and
discharge, using the HB 019 Orifice and Jet Flow apparatus.

IV. Apparatus

• Hydraulic Bench Apparatus

• Orifice and Jet Flow Measuring Device
• Graduated Pitcher
• Stopwatch/Timer

V. Theory
To determine the coefficients of velocity and discharge, the trajectory of a jet issuing
fluid from an orifice in the side of a reservoir is measured under steady flow conditions,
which means a constant reservoir head.
As the water level in the tank is above the orifice at a height of H, the velocity of water
discharged through the orifice can be found from Bernoulli’s equation applied between
point (1) at the water surface in the tank and point (20) in the jet flowing out of the tank.
This velocity, V = √ 2gH, consists of two components, a horizontal and vertical
component, and as air resistance is negligible, it can be considered as a constant. At
the same time, the jet path is dropping due to the forces of gravity, starting from 0
velocity at the orifice.

Determination of Coefficient of Velocity

If the effect of air resistance on the jet leaving the orifice is neglected, the
horizontal component of the jet velocity can be assumed to remain constant. Therefore,
the horizontal distance traveled by jet (x) in time (t) is equal to:

𝑥 = 𝑣. 𝑡 (1)

The vertical component of the trajectory of the jet will have a constant acceleration
downward due to the force of gravity. Therefore, at any time, t, the y-position of the jet
maybe calculated as:

1
𝑦 = 2 𝑔𝑡 2 (2)

Rearranging Equation (2) gives:

2𝑦 0.5
𝑡 = (𝑔) (3)

Substitution of t and v from Equations (3) and (2) into Equation (1) results in:

2𝑦 0.5
𝑥 = 𝐶𝑣 √2𝑔ℎ ( 𝑔 ) (4)

Equations (4) can be rearranged to find CV:

 𝑋
𝐶𝑉 =
2√𝑦ℎ

Therefore, for steady flow conditions (i.e., constant h in the head tank), the value of CV
can be determined from the x and y coordinates of the jet trajectory. A graph of x plotted
against √𝑦ℎ will have a slope of 2Cv

When the lower end of needle is at the same level as the center of the orifice then Y = 0
is made on the panel behind the needle near the end of the first needle

The Coefficient of Discharge, Cd

The volume of water in experiment of item 2.1 is directly measured by the measuring
tank or the measuring cup Therefore, actual flow rate can be determined by dividing the
volume of water with a measured unit of time recorded on a stopwatch.

Theoretical flow rate

𝑄𝑡ℎ = 𝐴𝑉𝑡ℎ

Where:
𝑚
Vth = theoretical value, ; (𝑉𝑡ℎ = √2𝑔𝐻
𝑠

𝜋𝑑2
A = Cross sectional area m2 ; (A= )
4

D = diameter of the orifice, m(d = 4mm or 8mm)

Actual flow rate

Qact be measure in the experiment:

𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
Qact = 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

Thus, the coefficient of discharge will be

𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡
𝐶𝑑 = =
𝑄𝑡ℎ 𝐴𝑉𝑡ℎ
 𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡
𝐶𝑑 = √2𝑔𝐻
𝜋𝑑 2
4

From the experiment, it can be observed that the actual flow rate (Qact) is lower than the
theoretical flow rate (Qth). This is due to the contraction of the diameter of the jet after
passing through the orifice, known as vena contracta, which can be found at a distance
of one-half outwards from the orifice. Additionally, there is some energy loss due to the
viscosity of the water flowing through the orifice.

By varying the water level in the tank or changing the orifice size various values Cd can

be found.

VI. Procedure:

1. Position the apparatus on the lab bench and ensure it is level.

2. Connect the bench outlet to the apparatus inlet.
3. Set the overflow pipe to achieve the desired water level in the tank.
4. Open the water supply valve to maintain a steady flow with minimal overflow.
5. Allow the water level in the tank and jet profile to stabilize before aligning the tips
of the probes with the center of the jet.
6. Record the probe tip profile (upper tips) from the scales.
7. Measure the flow rate using a stopwatch and the bench measuring tank or
measuring cup.
See the link tutorial:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x3bVnho3NXc&t-63s
VII. Critique Guide Questions:

1. Can you explain how the Orifice and Jet flow apparatus determines the various
device coefficients?
2. How will the discharge and device coefficients change if the head acting on the
orifice is increased?
3. How does increasing the diameter of the orifice affect the discharge and device
coefficients?
4. How does the inlet flow rate affect the trajectory of the water stream leaving the
orifice?
 A flow measurement tool known as a venturi meter uses the Bernoulli's equation
as its foundation. By lowering the cross-sectional area of the flow route, pressure
difference is produced inside the pipe. With the use of a manometer, this pressure
difference can now be measured and used to calculate the rate of fluid flow or other
discharge from the pipeline. A venturi meter has a cylindrical entrance section, a
converging conical inlet, a cylinder throat, and a diverging recovery cone.

Figure 6.3.1. Venturi Meter

Reference: https://electricalworkbook.com/venturimeter/

Components of venturi meter:

a. Cylindrical entrance section (Flow in): The part that is attached to it has a
segment that is the size of a pipe. The entrance is a straight cylindrical section
with a length equal to 5 to 10 times the pipe diameter.
b. Converging cone section: Convergence occurs at an angle of 21±2°. Fluid
velocity rises as it moves through the convergent region, and the static pressure
decreases as a result.
c. Throat: This is a cylindrical section of minimum area. The velocity is the
maximum, whereas the pressure is the minimum. The throat diameter is typically
½ to ¼ of the inlet diameter and the throat's length equals its diameter.
d. Diverging Cone section: The tube diameter gradually increases in this part. As
a result, the pressure is build up again to the original inlet pressure and usually it
has a cone angle of 5 to 7°.
 Principles of Venturi Meter

According to the Venturi principle, an increase in kinetic energy per unit weight
equals an increase in potential energy per unit weight. It is based on the principle of the
Bernoulli’s Equation.

Working Equation:

Bernoulli's principle describes the relationship between a fluid's pressure (P),

kinetic energy, and gravitational potential energy inside a pipe.

Reference: https://fm-nitk.vlabs.ac.in/exp/venturimeter/theory.html
Figure 6.3.2. Venturi Meter

Let 𝑑1 =, Diameter at inlet or at section 1,

𝑉1 = velocity of fluid at section 1
𝜋d21
a1 = Area at inlet = 4

𝑃1 = Pressure at section 1

and 𝑑2 , 𝑉2 , 𝑎2 & 𝑃2 are the corresponding values at section 2.

By applying Bernoulli's equations to sections 1 and 2, we obtain:

𝑃1 𝑣1 2 𝑃2 𝑣2 2
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2 (eq. 1)
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔

Since the pipe is horizontal, so 𝑧1 = 𝑧2

𝑃1 𝑣12 𝑃2 𝑣2 2
+ = +
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
𝑃1 − 𝑃2 𝑣2 2 − 𝑣12
= ( eq. 2)
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔

𝑃1 −𝑃2
But difference of pressure head at section 1 and 2 = h (eq. 3) substituting this
𝜌𝑔
𝑃1 −𝑃2
value of = ℎ in equation (2);
𝜌𝑔
 v22 − v12
h= ( eq. 4)
2g

Applying the continuity equation now to sections 1 and 2;

𝑎2 𝑣2
𝑎1 𝑣1 = 𝑎2 𝑣2 or 𝑣1 = 𝑎1

By substituting the value of 𝑣1 into equation (4) we obtain.

a2 v2 2
(
v2 2
a1 )
h = −
2𝑔 2𝑔
2 (a2 2 v2 2 )
v2
= −
2𝑔 a1 2 2𝑔
v2 2 a2 2
= (1 − 2 )
2𝑔 a1

𝑎1 2
𝑣2 2 = 2𝑔ℎ ( )
𝑎1 2 − 𝑎2 2

𝑎1 2
𝑣2 = √2𝑔ℎ ( )
𝑎1 2 − 𝑎2 2

𝑎1 2
𝑣2 = 2𝑔ℎ ( 2 )
𝑎1 − 𝑎22

𝑎1 𝜌𝐿
𝑣2 = √2𝑔ℎ where: ℎ = 𝑥 (1 − )
√𝑎12 − 𝑎22 𝜌

Where,
x = difference between the liquid column in U-tube.
𝜌𝐿 = density of lighter liquid.
𝜌 = density of liquid flowing through pipe.

But, discharge through venturi meter;

Q = a2 V2

𝑎1 𝑎2
𝑣2 = √2𝑔ℎ ( eq. 5)
√𝑎1 2 − 𝑎2 2

Q = C√h, where C = constant of venturi meter.

a1 a 2
𝑄𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜 = √2gh
√a1 2 − a2 2
The discharge under ideal conditions is represented by Equation (5) and is known as
the Theoretical discharge.

Actual discharge is given by:

Actual discharge = Coefficient of discharge x Theoretical discharge

𝑎1 𝑎2
𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 𝐶𝑑 ∗ √2𝑔ℎ
√𝑎1 2 − 𝑎2 𝑎2

Thus, we have now successfully derived the venturi meter.

Types of Venturi Meters

a. Horizontal Venturi Meter: The kinetic energy is highest, and the potential
energy is lowest in this venturi meter.

Reference: https://kdusling.github.io/teaching/Applied-Fluids/Notes/FlowMeasurement
Figure 6.3.3. Horizontal Venturi Meter

b. Vertical Venturi Meter: Here, the kinetic energy is at its lowest and the potential
energy is at its highest.

Reference: https://theinstrumentguru.com/venturimeter-advantage-of-venturimeter/

Figure 6.3.4. Vertical Venturi Meter

 c. Inclined Venturi Meter: It is a venturi meter that is put into a vertically inclined
pipeline. It aids in determining the pipe's flow rate.

Reference: https://www.theengineerspost.com/venturimeter/

Figure 6.3.5. Inclined Venturi Meter

Advantages of Venturi Meter

1. The power loss is considered low compared to other types of fluid measuring
instruments.
2. These are employed where a small head is available.
3. Accuracy will achieve higher over a wide flow range.
4. In venturi meter, the co-efficient of discharge is very high.
5. These devices are easy to handle and are also used for compressive and
incompressible fluids.
6. The Venturi meters are commonly used for high flow rates or discharge.

Disadvantages of Venturi Meter

1. Venturi meters are quite expensive to install.
2. These devices require maintenance.
3. This system requires more space than the orifice meter.
4. Venturi meter is costlier and a bit bulky.
5. These are not used where the pipe diameter is 76.2 mm.
 Applications of a Venturi Meter

Reference: http://www.mepskills.com/2020/10/how-to-use-venturi-meter-for-measuring.html
Figure 6.3.6. Venturi Meter

In the real world, a Venturi Meter can be used for a variety of purposes, including:
1. It is used to determine the flow of chemicals in pipelines.
2. Venturi meter can determine the flow rate of the fluid discharged through the pipe
of the device.
3. It is used a lot in the waste treatment process in which large diameter pipes are
used.
4. It is used in the industrial sector to determine the pressure and the quantity of
gas and liquid that flows inside the pipe.
5. A venturi meter is also used in the medical field to measure the rate of blood flow
in arteries.

Steps in Solving Venturi Meter Problems

1. Set up the Bernoulli’s Energy Equation involving the inlet and the throat
2. Use the continuity equation to determine the relationship between the inlet and
throat velocities or vice versa.
3. For the pressure head difference, perform summation of pressure head from
the inlet to the throat.
1. Calculate the volumetric discharge of the figure below.

Solution:

𝜋 2 𝜋 31 2
𝐴1 = 𝐷1 = ( ) = 7.548 x 10−4 𝐦𝟐
4 4 1000

𝜋 2 𝜋 19 2
𝐴2 = 𝐷2 = ( ) = 2.385 x 10−4 𝐦𝟐
4 4 1000

(a) Applying the Bernoulli equation:

𝑝1 𝑉12 𝑝2 𝑉22
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔

where, 𝑧1 = 𝑧2
(b) Continuity equation:

𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2

𝐴2
𝑉1 = 𝑉
𝐴1 2

𝑝1 𝑉12 𝑝2 𝑉22
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔

𝑝1 − 𝑝2 𝑉22 𝑉12
= −
𝛾 2𝑔 2𝑔

2𝑔(𝑝1 − 𝑝2 ) 𝐴1 𝑉1 2
=( ) − 𝑉12
𝛾 𝐴2
 2𝑔(𝑝1 − 𝑝2 ) 𝐴1
= 𝑉12 [( )2 − 1]
𝛾 𝐴2

2𝑔(𝑝1 − 𝑝2 )
𝛾
𝑉1 = √
𝐴
[(𝐴1 )2 − 1]
2

𝑄 = 𝐴1 𝑉1

2𝑔(𝑝1 − 𝑝2 ) (740 − 535) × 103

𝛾 2(9.81)
𝑄 = 𝐴1 √ = 7.548 x 10−4 √ 9.1 × 103
𝐴 7.548 x 10−4 2
[(𝐴1 )2 − 1] [( ) − 1]
2 2.385 x 10−4

Thus,

𝐦𝟑
𝑸 = 𝟓. 𝟎𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑
𝐬

2. To measure the flow of oil with a specific gravity of 0.9, a horizontal venturi meter with
an 8 cm throat and a 12 cm inlet diameter is laid in the pipe. A mercury manometer
gives a reading of 20 cm. Calculate the discharge in lit/min?

Solution:
For inlet,

A1 = (𝜋d1 2 )/4 = (𝜋 × 122 )/4 = 113.10 cm2

For throat,

A2 = (𝜋d2 2 )/4 = (𝜋 × 82 )/4 = 50.27 cm2

h = hm [(𝛾m /𝛾) − 1] = 20[(13.6/0.9) − 1] = 282.2 cm of oil

A1 A2 √2gH
Q=
√(A1 2 −A2 2 )

(113.10 × 50.27)√2 × 9.81 × 282.2 × 1000

Q=
√(113.10)2 − (50.27)2
Q = 132,047 cm3 /sec 𝑥 (60/1000)
𝐐 = 𝟕𝟗𝟐𝟐. 𝟖𝟒 𝐥𝐢𝐭/𝐦𝐢𝐧
3. A vertical pipe line carrying oil with a specific gravity of 0.9 is equipped with a venturi
meter measuring 30 cm by 15 cm. Upward flow is the direction of flow. The elevation
between the intake and neck varies by 30 cm. A mercury manometer gives a reading of
25 cm.

a. Calculate the discharge?

b. Determine the pressure head between inlet and throat?

Solution:

a.) Discharge

For inlet, A1 = (𝜋d12 )/4 = (𝜋 × 302 )/4 = 706.86 cm2

For throat, A2 = (𝜋d22 )/4 = (𝜋 × 152 )/4 = 176.71 cm2

H = hm [(𝛾m /𝛾) − 1] = 25[(13.6/0.9) − 1] = 352.8 cm of oil

A1 A2 √2gH (706.86 × 176.71)√2 × 981 × 352.8
Q= 𝑄=
√(A21 − A22 ) √(706.86)2 − (176.71)2

𝑄 = 151840.60 cm3 /sec 𝑥 (1/1000)

𝑄 = 151.84 L/sec

b.) Pressure Head between Inlet and Throat

[Z1 + (P1 /𝛾)] − [Z2 + (P2 /𝛾)] = H

(P1 /𝛾) − (P2 /𝛾) + (Z1 − Z2 ) = 352.8
Z1 − Z2 = 0 − 30 = −30
(P1 /𝛾) − (P2 /𝛾) = 352.8 + 30 = 𝟑𝟖𝟐. 𝟖𝟎 𝐜𝐦 of oil
4. The flow rate of water through a horizontal pipe with a 5-cm diameter is measured
using a venturi meter with a differential pressure gage. The measured pressure drop is
5 kPa, and the Venturi neck's diameter is 3 cm. Calculate the volume flow rate of water
through the pipe using the assumption that the discharge coefficient is 0.98.

Solution:

From the figure shown:

Velocity at section (1) and (2):

𝑄1 = 𝑄2
𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑣2
𝜋 𝜋
(0.05)2 (𝑣1 ) = (0.03)2 (𝑣2 )
4 4
𝑣1 = 0.36𝑣2

Using Bernoulli equation at section (1) and (2):

𝑣12 𝑝1 𝑣22 𝑝2
+ 𝑧1 + = + 𝑧2 +
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾
(0.36𝑣2 ) 2
𝑝1 − 𝑝2 𝑣22
+0+ = +0
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔
6 0.8704𝑣22
=
𝛾 2𝑔
𝑣2 = 3.713 m/s
Flow rate:

𝑄 = 𝐶𝐴𝑣
𝜋
𝑄 = 0.98 ( 4 ) (0.03)2 (3.713)(1000)
𝑸 = 𝟐. 𝟓𝟕 𝐋/𝐬

5. A vertical venturi meter with water flowing upward is fitted with a 30 cm x 15 cm

venturi meter. The inlet and throat are connected to a differential mercury manometer,
which measures 20 cm. Find the discharge. Take 𝐶𝑑 = 0.98.

Solution:
Given:

Diameter at inlet, 𝑑1 = 30 cm

𝜋
Area of inlet, 𝑎1 = 4 (30)2 = 706.86 cm2

Diameter at throat, 𝑑2 = 15 cm

𝜋
𝑎2 = (15)2 = 176.71 cm2
4

Reading of differential manometer, x = 20 cm of mercury

Difference in Pressure head is given by:

𝑆ℎ
ℎ = 𝑥[ − 1]
𝑆0

where:

𝑆ℎ = Specific gravity of mercury = 13.6

𝑆𝑜 = Specific gravity of water = 1
𝑥 = Difference of the heavier liquid column in U-tube
𝑆ℎ 13.6
ℎ = 𝑥[ − 1] = 20 [ − 1.0] = 20 × 12.6 = 252.0 cm of water
𝑆0 1.0
𝐶𝑑 = 0.98
The discharge is computed as:
 𝑎1 𝑎2
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 × √2𝑔ℎ
√𝑎12 − 𝑎22

706.86 × 176.71
𝑄 = 0.98 × × √2 × 9.81 × 252
√(706.85)2 − (176.71)2
𝑐𝑚3 1
𝑄 = 12576.42 𝑥 𝐿/𝑠
s 1000
𝑸 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟓𝟖 𝑳𝒊𝒕𝒆𝒓/𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒔

VIRTUAL LAB EXPERIMENT: VENTURIMETER

Link: https://fm-nitk.vlabs.ac.in/exp/venturimeter/simulation.html

OBJECTIVES:

• To determine the coefficient of discharge of the given venturi meter.

MATERIALS/INSTRUMENTS/APPARATUS:

• Venturi meter Simulator

• Differential Manometer
• Collecting tank from
• Stopwatch / Timer

THEORY:

The Venturi meter is a device for measuring flow that is based on Bernoulli's
equation. By reducing the flow passage's cross-sectional area inside the pipe, a
pressure difference is created. This difference in pressure is measured with a
manometer and is used to determine the fluid flow rate or other discharge from the pipe
line. A Venturi meter has a cylinder-shaped entrance, a converging conical inlet, a
cylinder-shaped throat, and a diverging recovery cone.
PROCEDURE:

1. Select the required diameter of pipe.

2. Click on the main inlet valve to allow the flow through it.
3. Click on pipe inlet valve to allow the flow through it.
4. Click on manometer knot to change it from isolated position to air-vent position to
remove air bubbles and again click to change it to read position.
5. Here the manometer reading is noted.
6. The exit valve of the collecting tank is closed and note the time taken by the
water to rise by 5 cm.
7. Calculate actual discharge, theoretical discharge and coefficient of discharge.
Repeat the same procedure for other trials.

DATA AND RESULTS

Table 1. 50mm Pipe Diameter

d1 (cm)
d2 (cm)
Left limb reading (cm)
Right limb reading (cm)
(P1-P2)/ (cm)
Head causing the flow, H (cm)
 Area of collecting tank (cm2) 6750
Rise of liquid (cm) 5
Time (sec)
Qact (cm3/s)
Qth (cm3/s)
Cd
Cd

Table 3. 20mm Pipe Diameter

d1 (cm)
d2 (cm)
Left limb reading (cm)
Right limb reading (cm)
(P1-P2)/ (cm)
Head causing the flow, H (cm)
Area of collecting tank (cm2) 6750
Rise of liquid (cm) 5
Time (sec)
Qact (cm3/s)
Qth (cm3/s)
Cd

SAMPLE DATA AND SOLUTIONS:

Table 1. 50mm Pipe Diameter

d1 (cm) 5
d2 (cm) 2.72
Left limb reading (cm) 31
Right limb reading (cm) 37
(P1-P2)/ (cm) 75.6
Head causing the flow, H (cm) 75.6
Area of collecting tank (cm2) 6750
Rise of liquid (cm) 5
Time (sec) 15.40
Qact (cm3/s) 2191.5584
Qth (cm3/s) 2342.8271
 Cd 0.94

Table 3. 20mm Pipe Diameter

d1 (cm) 1
d2 (cm) 1.36
Left limb reading (cm) 35
Right limb reading (cm) 45
(P1-P2)/ (cm) 126
Head causing the flow, H (cm) 126
Area of collecting tank (cm2) 6750
Rise of liquid (cm) 5
Time (sec) 45.52
Qact (cm3/s) 741.4323
Qth (cm3/s) 814.5913
Cd 0.91

COMPUTATIONS

For 50 mm Pipe Diameter:

∑ P1→2 ;

P1 + γw (y) - Sg Hg (γw )(hr - hl )- γw (y- (hr - hl ))=P2

where:
P1 and P2 =Pressure
γw =unit weight of water=9.81 kN/m3
y=distance from datum to c
hr =right limb reading =37cm
hl = limb reading= 31 cm
Sg Hg = Specific gravity of Mercury= 3.16 kg/L

P1 + γw (y)-Sg Hg (γw )(hr -hl )-γw (y-(hr -hl ))=P2

P1 + γw (y)-13.6 γw (37-31)- γw y(37-31)=P2
P1 + γw (y)-13.6 γw (6)- γw (y-6)=P2
P1 + γw (y)-13.6 γw (6)- γw y +γw (6)=P2
P1 -81.6+γw (6)=P2
P1 -P2 = γw (81.6-6)
 P1 -P2
=75.6 cm
γw

Volume=Area of tank x rise of liquid

Volume (∀)=6750 cm2 x 5 cm = 33,750 cm3

∀ 33,750 cm3
Qactual = =
t 15.40 secs
Qactual = 2191.5584 cm3 /s

2gH
V2 =
√ d 4
1- ( 2 )
d1
m 100 cm
g=9.81 s2 x = 981 m/s2
1m

∆P
H= +z ; z= 0 cm
γw

H=75.6 cm+0 cm= 75.6 cm

2(981 m/s 2 )(75.6 cm)

V2 = √ =403.1926m/s
2.72 cm 4
1- ( )
5 cm

π
Qtheoretical =A2 V2 = (2.72 cm)2 (403.1926m/s )
4
Qtheoretical =2342.8271 cm3 /s

Qactual 2191.5584 cm3 /s

Cd= Q =
theoretical 2342.8271 cm3 /s

Cd= 0.94

For 20 mm Pipe Diameter:

∑ P1→2 ;

P1 + γw (y) - Sg Hg (γw )(hr - hl )- γw (y- (hr - hl ))=P2

where:
P1 and P2 =Pressure
γw =unit weight of water = 9.81 kN/m3
y=distance from datum to C
hr =right limb reading =45cm
hl = limb reading= 35 cm
Sg Hg = Specific gravity of Mercury= 3.16 kg/L

P1 + γw (y)-Sg Hg (γw )(hr -hl )-γw (y-(hr -hl ))=P2

P1 + γw (y)-13.6 γw (45-35)- γw y(45-35)=P2
P1 + γw (y)-13.6 γw (10)- γw (y-10)=P2
P1 + γw (y)-13.6 γw (10)- γw y +γw (10)=P2
P1 -136+γw (10)=P2
P1 -P2 = γw (136-10)
P1 -P2
=126 cm
γw

Volume=Area of tank x rise of liquid

Volume (∀)=6750 cm2 x 5 cm = 33,750 cm3

∀ 33,750 cm3
Qactual = =
t 45.52 secs
Qactual = 741.4323 cm3 /s

2gH
V2 =
√ d2 4
1- ( )
d1
m 100 cm
g=9.81 s2 x = 981 m/s2
1m

∆P
H= +z ; z= 0 cm
γw

H=126 cm+0 cm= 126 cm

2(981 m/s 2 )(126 cm)

V2 = √ =560.7536 m/s
1.36 cm 4
1- ( 2 cm )

π
Qtheoretical =A2 V2 = (1.36 cm)2 (560.7536 m/s )
4
Qtheoretical =814.5913 cm3 /s

Qactual 741.4323 cm3 /s

Cd= Q =
theoretical 814.5913 cm3 /s

Cd= 0.91
 The flow nozzle is an instrument for measuring flow rate by utilizing the pressure
drop across a nozzle that is typically positioned within a conduit. Similar to an orifice
meter, engineering standards describe the design and application of the flow nozzle. In
flows that cause wear, the flow nozzle is superior to an orifice meter (e.g., particle-laden
flow). The reason for this is that orifice erosion will result in a greater shift in the
pressure-drop versus flow rate relationship. The overall head loss produced by the flow
nozzle and orifice meter will be comparable.

Figure 6.4.1. Flow Nozzle

Reference: https://canteach.candu.org/Content%20Library/20053319

Flow nozzles are commonly used for measuring steam flow and other high-
velocity fluid flow measurements where erosion may occur. It can measure flow rates
approximately 60% higher than an orifice plate of the same diameter. This is due to the
throat's streamlined shape, which provides a distinct advantage when measuring fluids
with a high velocity. Flow nozzles require fewer straight pipe runs than orifice plates.
However, the pressure decrease is comparable for both
Principles of Nozzles

A flow nozzle generates a pressure drop that varies with the flow rate when it is
inserted into a pipe whose rate of flow is to be monitored. A differential pressure sensor
is used to measure the pressure drop, and after calibration, the pressure is converted to
a flow rate measurement.

Figure 6.4.2 Diagram of Flow Nozzle

Reference: Editorial Staff, 2018

The following are the primary components of the flow nozzle configuration used
to measure flow rate: A flow nozzle held between the flanges of the pipe transporting
the fluid whose flow rate is being measured. At its throat, the flow nozzle's area is at its
minimum.

As shown in the diagram, openings are provided at places 1 and 2 for mounting a
differential pressure sensor (differential pressure gauge, U-tube manometer, etc.).

Important Formulas:

Figure 6.4.3 Nozzle Meter

Reference: Hibbeler & Yap, 2017, p.509

 A nozzle meter works basically the same way as a venturi meter. When this
device is inserted into the path of the flow, as shown in the figure, the flow is constricted
at the front of the nozzle, passes through its throat, and then leaves the nozzle without
diverting the flow. This causes localized turbulence due to the acceleration of the flow
through the nozzle, and then deceleration as the flow adjusts farther downstream. As a
result, the frictional losses through the nozzle will be greater than flow through a venturi
meter. Measurements of the pressure drop from ports 1 and 2 are used to determine
the theoretical velocity, 𝑉2. Here engineers use an experimentally determined nozzle
discharge coefficient, 𝐶𝑛, to account for any frictional losses. Therefore, the flow
becomes:

𝜋 2(𝑝1 − 𝑝2 )/𝜌
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑛 ( 𝐷22 ) √
4 1 − (𝐷2 /𝐷1 )4

Values for 𝐶𝑛 as a function of the upstream Reynolds number are provided by the
manufacturer for various area ratios of the nozzle and pipe.

Types of Nozzles

d. ISA 1932, with corner taps (weld-in type): This kind of flow nozzle was created
by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). It is commonly
employed in high-pressure and high-temperature applications involving pipe
diameters of less than 2 inches.

Reference: https://www.tek-trol.com/measurement-basics/flow-nozzles/
Figure 6.4.4. Nozzle Meter

e. A.S.M.E. long radius, low beta ratio (0.20 < β < 0.5), with throat tap (flanged
type): Beta ratio is the ratio of the diameter of the nozzle throat to that of the
main pipe. This type of nozzle is widely employed within the power industry. It
has highly accurate measurement capability and easy installation thanks to easy-
to-installation throat taps. This configuration positions the nozzle between the
pipe flanges.
 Figure 6.4.5. Nozzle Meter

f. A.S.M.E. long radius, high beta ratio (0.25 < β < 0.8), with radius taps
(holding ring type): A holding ring and locating pins made of the same material
as the pipe are used to install this nozzle in pipes without flanges. This removes
the need for welding dissimilar materials. It is recommended for pipes larger than
four inches in diameter.

Reference: https://www.tek-trol.com/measurement-basics/flow-nozzles/

Figure 6.4.6. Long Radius Nozzle Meter

Typical Values for Discharge Coefficient , Cd

Reference: https://neutrium.net/fluid-flow/discharge-coefficient-for-nozzles-and-orifices/

Advantages of flow Nozzle

1. When compared to a venturi meter, installation is simple and less expensive.

2. It has a high coefficient of discharge
3. It is extremely compact.
Disadvantages of flow Nozzle

1. low recovery of pressure

2. High maintenance
3. In comparison to an orifice flow meter, installation is difficult

Applications of a Nozzle

One of the earliest equations in fluid mechanics describes the flow of a liquid
from a large reservoir. A modern version of this type of flow involves the flow of coffee
from a coffee urn as indicated by the below Fig. 1. An incompressible fluid jet has an
exit pressure equal to the surrounding pressure.

Figure 6.4.7. The flow of coffee from a coffee urn

The basic principles of this type of flow are shown in the below Fig.4.9 where a
jet of liquid of diameter d flows from the nozzle with velocity V. (A nozzle is a fluid-
accelerating device with a conical shape.) The above Equation, when applied between
points (1) and (2) on the shown streamline, yields:

𝑣 = √2𝑔ℎ

Figure 6.4.8. Flow rate through Nozzle

Reference: Çengel & Cimbala, 2006, p. 365

 A simple method of measuring the water flow rate through a garden hose
involves filling a bucket with water and timing how long it takes to fill it.

Other Applications of Nozzle

1. It is used to measure the liquid flow rates released into the atmosphere.
2. It is typically employed in situations where solids in suspension have the property
of settling.
3. Widely employed for high-temperature, high-pressure steam flow.

1. A tank's water level is 20 meters above the ground. The nozzle at the end of a hose
that is attached to the tank's bottom is pointing straight up. The tank cover is airtight,
and the air pressure gauge reads 2 atm above the water's surface. It is situated at sea
level. Determine the maximum height to which the water stream could rise. Determine
the maximum height to which the water stream could rise. We assume that water has a
density of 1000 kg/m^3.
Solution:

Given:

𝑧1 = 20 𝑚

𝑃1 = 2 𝑎𝑡𝑚

𝑃2 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 𝑂 𝑎𝑡𝑚

𝑣1 = 𝑣2 = 0 𝑚/𝑠

Applying Bernoulli’s Eqaution:

𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃atm 𝑉22

+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔

2 02 0 02
+ + 20 = + + 𝑧2
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔

2 0
+ 20 = + 𝑧2
𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔
2
𝑧2 = + 20
𝜌𝑔
2 atm 101,325 N/m2 1 kg ⋅ m/s2
𝑧2 = ( )( ) + 20 = 40.66 m
(1000 kg/m3 )(9.81 m/s 2 ) 1 atm 1N

𝒛𝟐 = 𝟒𝟎. 𝟔𝟔 𝐦
2. The inside diameter of fire hoses used in major structural fires is 7 cm. Assume this
hose has a flow rate of 36.75 L/s and a gauge pressure of 2 Pa. The hose ascends 10.0
m along a ladder to a 3.00 cm inside diameter nozzle. How much pressure is in the
nozzle?

Solution:
Given:
Dhose= 7 cm
Dnozzle = 3 cm
Q = 36.75 L/s
P1 = 2 atm
Z2 = 8.5 m = h2

Calculate the velocity,

𝑄 = 𝐴1 𝑣1 ,
1 m3
𝑄 36.75 L/s × 1000 𝐿
𝑣1 = = 𝜋
𝐴hose (7 −2 2
4 × 10 m)
𝑣1 = 9.55 m/s
1 m3
𝑄 36.75 L/s × 1000 𝐿
𝑣2 = = 𝜋
𝐴nozzle (3 −2 2
4 × 10 m)
𝑣1 = 51.99 m/s

Applying Bernoulli’s Equation,

𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃2 𝑉22
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
1 1
𝑝1 + 𝜌𝑣12 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ1 = 𝑝2 + 𝜌𝑣22 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ2
2 2
 1
𝑝2 = 𝑝1 + 𝜌(𝑣12 − 𝑣22 ) − 𝜌𝑔ℎ2
2
1
𝑝2 = 2 × 106 N/m2 + 2 (1000 kg/m3 )[(9.55 m/s)2 − (51.99 m/s)2 ]
−(1000 kg/m3 )(9.81 m/s 2 )(8.5 m)
𝒑𝟐 = 𝟔𝟏𝟎, 𝟕𝟑𝟔 𝐏𝐚.

3. As shown in the figure below, a vertical wall is of 8 m in height. A jet of water is

coming out from a nozzle with a velocity of 20 m/s. The nozle is situated at a distance of
20 m from the vertical wall. Find the angle of projection of the nozzle to the horizontal so
that the jet of water just clears the top of the wall.

Solution:
Given:
Height of wall , 𝑦 =8m
Velocity of Jet, 𝑈 = 20 m/s
Distance of jet from wall, 𝑥 = 20 m
Let the required angle , =𝜃

𝑔𝑥 2
𝑦 = 𝑥tan 𝜃 − sec 2 𝜃
2𝑈 2
9.81 × 202
8 = 20tan 𝜃 − sec 2 𝜃
2 × 202
= 20tan 𝜃 − 4.905sec 2 𝜃
= 20tan 𝜃 − 4.905[1 + tan2 𝜃] {∵ sec 2 𝜃 = 1 + tan2 𝜃}
= 20tan 𝜃 − 4.905 − 4.905tan2 𝜃
or 4.905tan2 𝜃 − 20tan 𝜃 + 8 + 4.905 = 0
or 4.905tan2 𝜃 − 20tan 𝜃 + 12.905 = 0
 20 ± √202 − 4 × 12.905 × 4.905 20 ± √400 − 253.19
∴ tan 𝜃 = =
2 × 4.905 9.81
20 ± √146.81 20 ± 12.116 32.116 7.889
= = = or
9.81 9.81 9.81 9.81
∴ = 3.273 or 0.8036
∴ 𝜽 = 𝟕∘ 𝟎. 𝟖′ or 𝟑𝟖∘ 𝟑𝟕′

4. A 5 cm diameter nozzle with a 30 degree angle above the horizontal discharges

water. What is the discharge in cubic meters per second if the jet strikes the ground at a
horizontal distance of 5 m and a vertical distance of 1 m from the nozzle as shown in
the figure below?

4.6
4.6 m
m

1.5 m

Solution:

(𝑉𝑜 )𝑥 = 𝑉𝑗 Cos 30∘ = 0.87𝑉𝑗

(𝑉𝑜 )𝑧 = 𝑉𝑗 Sin 30∘ = 0.5𝑉𝑗

Therefore, the two coordinate equations for the trajectory are

𝑥 = (𝑉𝑗 Cos 30∘ )𝑡

𝑉𝑗
=𝑡
x Cos 30∘

1
𝑧 = (𝑉𝑗 Sin 30∘ )𝑡 − 𝑔𝑡 2
2
By eliminating 𝑡 and solving for Vj from these two equations,

𝑥 𝑔 1/2
𝑉𝑗 = [ ]
Cos 30∘ 2(𝑥Tan 30∘ − 𝑧)
1/2
4.6 9.81
= [ ]
0.87 2(4.6 × 0.577 − 1.5)
𝑉𝑗 = 10.90 m/sec

Hence
 𝜋
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑗 𝑉𝑗 = × 0.052 × 9.31
4

𝑸 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐 𝐦𝟑 /𝐬𝐞𝐜

5. At a rate of 0.13 m^3/sec, water is drawn from a reservoir with a water level 240 m
above datum. The pipeline's outlet is at datum level and equipped with a nozzle that
produces a high-speed jet to power a Pelton wheel type. If the velocity of is 66 m/sec,
then compute:

a. Power of the jet,

b. Power supplied from the reservoir,

c. The head used to overcome losses,

d. The efficiency of the pipeline and nozzle in transmitting power

Solution:
a. The jet issuing from the nozzle will be at atmospheric pressure and at datum level so
that, P = 0 and z = 0. Therefore,

1
Power of jet = 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑄
2
1 1000
𝑃= × × 662 × 0.13 = 28862kgm/sec
2 9.81
𝑃 = 28862 × 9.81 = 283140 W = 283.14KW

b. At the reservoir, the pressure is atmospheric and the velocity of the free surface is
zero therefore, P = 0, V = 0. Therefore,
Power supplied from reservoir = 𝜌𝑄𝑔𝑧 = 𝛾𝑄𝑧

𝑃 = 1000 × 0.13 × 240 = 31200kgm/sec

𝑃 = 31200 × 9.81 = 306072 W = 306.72KW

𝑷 = 𝟑𝟎𝟔. 𝟕𝟐𝐊𝐖

c. If, H1 = Total head at the reservoir, H2 = Total head at the jet, h = Head lost in
transmission,
Power supplied from reservoir = 𝛾𝑄𝐻1 = 31200kgm/sec
Power of issuing jet = 𝛾QH2 = 28862 kgm/sec
Power lost in transmission = 𝛾𝑄ℎ = 2338kgm/sec
Head lost in pipe = h = ( Power lost )/(𝛾Q)

2338
ℎ=
1000 × 0.13

𝒉 = 𝟏𝟕. 𝟗𝟖 𝐦
d. Efficiency of transmission = ( Power of jet )/( Power supplied by reservoir )

28862
Efficiency of transmission = 31200 = 0.925 = 92.5%

Efficiency of transmission = 𝟗𝟐. 𝟓%

Learn something new every day!

De Laval Nozzle

It is interesting to learn about Robert Goddard's The Nell Rocket. The de Laval
Nozzle is yet another aspect of rocket science. When Robert Goddard was developing
his rockets, he chose to employ a kind of nozzle that would have a pinch in the center.
Fuel burns faster than the speed of sound when it is pushed out of the smaller portion of
the nozzle under pressure.

In the 19th century, Swedish inventor Gustaf de Laval created the nozzle. Its
functioning depends on the unique characteristics of gases moving at subsonic and
supersonic speeds. If the pipe carrying a subsonic flow of gas becomes narrower, its
speed will rise. This is due to the fact that a subsonic flow behaves (roughly) as though
it is incompressible. The opposite is true at supersonic speeds, so widening the pipe will
accelerate the gas passing through it. Therefore, a de Laval nozzle works by first
opening up to a "throat," where the gas flow is moving at the speed of sound, and then
opening up once more to increase the speed of the gas.
 Fun Activity

Squeeze Me ‘til I’m Gone Game

Materials Needed:

• Plastic Bottle
• Water

Procedure / Mechanics:

1. Each group will be given 5 bottles containing equal volume of water. The bottles
are sealed and have small holes on its cap.
2. Each group must have at least one representative at a time. When the reporters
raised the Go signal, the representatives of each group will hold the bottle until
the water pours out.
3. The group to finish squeezing the bottle will run to the masters of the game and
raise the question for additional points.
4. The group to answer the question will get the points.
PITOT TUBE

A pitot tube is a simple device that consists of a tube with a bend near one end
(L-shaped or U-shaped). The opening of the pitot tube is oriented into the direction of
flow of fluid.

Figure 6.5.1. Pitot Tube Diagram

The pressure head shown by the level of fluid in a piezometer is ℎ1 and it is

related to the static pressure. The difference of fluid level in the pitot tube and
piezometer is the velocity hear or h. It is related to the dynamic pressure. Meanwhile,
𝑣2
ℎ2 is the sum of the pressure head, ℎ1 and the velocity head ℎ = 2𝑔. It is given by the

Pitot Tube. It is related to the stagnation pressure. The fluid velocity, V can be
obtained by the difference of fluid level in the pitot tube and piezometer, h.

Remarks:

1. This fluid velocity is obtained in ideal conditions, where there is no loss in a

steady incompressible flow.
2. In reality, losses at piezometer and pitot tube, and friction losses on all surfaces
need to be considered, as well as compressibility and unsteady effects of the
flow.
 3. Hence, a correction factor must be included to obtain a relatively accurate value
of the velocity. This correction factor is determined from experiments.

Notes:

1. The height from a reference line to the fluid level in a piezometer is called
Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL). It is the line that represents the sum of elevation
head and pressure head.
2. The height from a reference line to the fluid level in a pitot tube is called Energy
Grade Line (EGL). It is the line that represents the total head, or the sum of
elevation head, pressure head and velocity head.
3. The difference between the EGL and the HGL is the velocity head.

Types of Pitot Tube

Figure 6.5.2. Types of Pitot Tube

1. Simple Pitot Tube – it is used to measure stagnation pressure only

2. Static Source – it is used to measure static pressure only
3. Pitot-Static Tube – it is used to measure both stagnation and static pressure
1. A water jet stream's dynamic head is calculated as 0.9 meters of mercury column.
Assuming the jet is directed vertically upward, calculate the height to which it will rise.

Solution:

Using the datum of the location where the dynamic head is measured, converting the
mercury column to a head of water, and noting that the velocity is zero at the maximum
point,

0.9 (13.6) + 0 + 0 = 0 + 0 + 𝑍
∴ 𝒁 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟐𝟒 𝒎 (𝑨𝑵𝑺𝑾𝑬𝑹)

Note. If the head measured is given as the reading of a differential manometer, then the
head should be calculated as 0.9 (13.6 – 1) m.

2. The velocity of water in a pipe is measured using a pitot tube. The static pressure
head is 5 m and the stagnation pressure head is 7 m. Determine the flow velocity
assuming a tube co-efficient of 0.97.

Given:

ℎ𝑔 = 6𝑚

ℎ𝑓 = 5𝑚

ℎ = 7𝑚 − 5𝑚 = 2𝑚

Solution:

𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤, 𝑉 = 𝐶𝑣 √2𝑔ℎ

𝒎
𝑉 = 0.97√2(9.81)(2) = 𝟖. 𝟎𝟖 (𝑨𝑵𝑺𝑾𝑬𝑹)
𝒔
3. A Prandtl tube (Pitot-static tube with 𝐶1 = 1) is used to measure the velocity of the
water. The differential manometer reading is 10mm of the liquid column with a relative
density of 11. Assuming 𝑔 = 9.8 𝑚/𝑠 2 , the velocity of water (in m/s) is _?

The difference between stagnation and static pressures is commonly used to calculate
velocity (pitot tube). The stagnation pressure is found at point 0. To obtain the
stagnation pressure, the opening of the tube must be perpendicular to the fluid flow.

The lower end, which has been bent 90 degrees, is directed upstream. Due to the
conversion of kinetic energy to pressure energy, the liquid rises in the tube. Measuring
the rise of the liquid in the tube generates the velocity.

Given:

𝑠𝑔 = 11

𝑠𝑜 = 1

𝑥 = 0.01𝑚

𝐶𝑉 = 1

Solution:

𝑠𝑔
ℎ = 𝑥[ − 1]
𝑠𝑜

11
ℎ = 0.01 [ − 1] = 0.1 m
1

𝑉1 = 𝐶𝑣 √2𝑔ℎ

𝒎
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 1√2(9,81)(0.1) = 𝟏. 𝟒 (𝑨𝑵𝑺𝑾𝑬𝑹)
𝒔

4. A 300 mm pipe line has a pitot-static tube in the center with one orifice pointing
upstream and the other perpendicular to it. The central velocity is equal to 0.80 times
the pipe's mean velocity. If there is a 60 mm of water pressure difference between the
two orifices, determine the discharge through the pipe. Consider 𝐶𝑣 = 0.98 to be the
Pitot tube co-efficient.

Given:

𝐷𝑖𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 (𝑑) = 300 𝑚𝑚 = 0.30𝑚

𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓. 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 ( ℎ) = 60 𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 0.06𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 (𝐶𝑣 ) = 0.98

Solution:

𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 (Ṽ) = 0.80 𝑥 𝐶𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦

𝐶𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝐶𝑣 √2𝑔ℎ = 0.98√2(9.81)(0.06) = 1.063 𝑚/𝑠

𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 (Ṽ) = 0.80 (1.063) = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟓𝟎𝟒 𝒎/𝒔

𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒, 𝑄 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑥 Ṽ

𝜋𝑑 2
𝑄= (𝑉)
4

𝜋(30)2
𝑄= (0.8504)
4

𝑸 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔 𝒎𝟑 / 𝒔 (𝑨𝑵𝑺𝑾𝑬𝑹)

5. A pitot-tube is inserted in a pipe of 300 mm diameter. The static pressure in pipe is

100 mm of mercury (vacuum). The stagnation pressure at the center of the pipe,
recorded by the pitot-tube is 0.981 N/cm2. Calculate the rate of flow of water through
pipe, if the mean velocity of flow is 0.85 times the central velocity. Take Cv = 0.98.

Given:

𝐷𝑖𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 (𝑑) = 300𝑚𝑚 = 0.03𝑚

𝜋𝑑2 𝜋(0.3)2
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝐴) = = = 0.07068 𝑚2
4 4
−100
𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 = 100𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑓𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑦 (𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚)= (13.6) = −1.36𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
1000

𝑁 𝑁
𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 0.981 𝑐𝑚2 = 0.981𝑥104 𝑚2

0.984𝑥104 0.984𝑥104
𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 = = = 1𝑚
𝑝𝑔 1000(9.81)

Solution:

ℎ = 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 − 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑

ℎ = 1.0 − (−1.36) = 2.36 𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒 = 𝐶𝑣 √2𝑔ℎ

𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒 = 0.98√2(9.81)(2.36) = 6.668 𝑚/𝑠

𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 0.85 𝑥 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦

𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 0.85(6.668) = 5.6678 𝑚/𝑠

𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑥 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒

𝒎𝟑
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 5.6678(0.07068 𝑚3 /𝑠 = 0.4006 (𝑨𝑵𝑺𝑾𝑬𝑹)
𝒔

6. A mercury manometer is connected to the Pitot-static tube in a pipe transporting

kerosene as shown. If the deflection on the manometer is 7 in., what is the kerosene
velocity in the pipe? Assume that the specific gravity of the kerosene is 0.81.

Solution:

𝑝1 + (𝑍1 − 𝑍2 )𝛾𝑘𝑒𝑟𝑜 + ℓ𝛾𝑘𝑒𝑟𝑜 − 𝑦𝛾𝐻𝑔 − (ℓ − y)𝛾𝑘𝑒𝑟𝑜 = 𝑝2

𝑝1 + 𝛾𝑘𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝑍1 − (𝑝2 + 𝛾𝑘𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝑍2 ) = 𝑦(𝛾𝐻𝑔 − 𝛾𝑘𝑒𝑟𝑜 )

𝑝𝑧1 − 𝑝𝑧2 = 𝑦(𝛾𝐻𝑔 − 𝛾𝑘𝑒𝑟𝑜 )

2
𝑉=[ 𝑦(𝛾𝐻𝑔 − 𝛾𝑘𝑒𝑟𝑜 )]1/2
𝜌𝑘𝑒𝑟𝑜

𝛾𝐻𝑔
𝑉 = [2𝑔𝑦( − 1)]1/2
𝛾𝑘𝑒𝑟𝑜

7 13.55
𝑉 = [2 𝑥 32.3 𝑓𝑡/𝑠 2 𝑥 𝑓𝑡 ( − 1)]1/2
12 0.81
7
𝑉 = [2 𝑥 32.3 𝑥 (16.7 − 1)𝑓𝑡 2 /𝑠 2 )1/2
12

𝒇𝒕
𝑽 = 𝟐𝟒. 𝟑 (𝑨𝑵𝑺𝑾𝑬𝑹)
𝒔
LET’S EXPERIMENT!

VIRTUAL PITOT TUBE APPARATUS

Link: https://me.iitp.ac.in/Virtual-Fluid-Laboratory/pitot/introduction.html

Objectives:

• To make the experiment easier for students to comprehend without having to

physically set up the experiment.
• Using various flow rates, determine the flow (or point) velocity at the tube's
center.
• To determine the pitot tube coefficient (or co-efficient of velocity).
• For the specified pipe, plot the velocity profile across the cross section.

About Setup:

The device consists of a sump tank and centrifugal pump. In the acrylic test
section, a copper pitot tube is connected to a pipeline with a flow control valve. The
pointer gauge is provided for measuring the vertical position of the pitot tube within the
specified test section. A manometer is available for measuring the pressure differential.
utilizing the measuring tank and a stopwatch, we must calculate the discharge. The
water flow is regulated with the aid of a control and by-pass valve.
Simulation Procedure:

1. Press the power button to turn on the power supply.

2. There are two modes—coefficient of velocity and velocity profile—and coefficient
of velocity is the mode that is selected by default. By clicking on it, you can
change to the velocity profile.
3. As soon as you turn on the machine, a flowrate slider will appear at the bottom.
4. In the zoomed view of the pitot tube test section, you will see two arrows when
you click on velocity profile. The pin height can be adjusted by clicking the
arrows. Record the readings in both arms of the manometer by clicking on the
"Save" button.
5. Take readings at various flow rates in order to calculate the coefficient of velocity.
6. In the case of a velocity profile, change the pin height and take readings while
keeping the flowrate constant.
7. When you're finished taking readings, click the "show observation table" button to
view the observation table.
8. To export the observation table as an excel file for additional calculations, click
the export to excel button.
 FACT!

Pitot tubes, originally used in

aviation, are now used in a variety of
applications such as industrial
machinery, boats, and sports cars. They
are used to measure the velocity of a
flow and can be used in any project that
requires this measurement. However,
airplanes typically use a combination of
a pitot tube and static ports called a
pitot-static tube.

ACTIVITY: How a Pitot Tube Works

To demonstrate how a pitot tube works is to create a homemade pitot tube using
materials that can be found around the house. Here are the steps to make a simple pitot
tube:

1. Gather materials: You will need a plastic straw, a piece of tape, and a piece of
paper.
2. Create the pitot tube: Take the plastic straw and use the tape to seal one end of
it. Then, make a small hole at the other end of the straw, about 1 cm from the
end.
3. Conduct the activity: Hold the straw vertically and blow through the hole at the
end of the straw. Observe how the air pressure from your breath causes the
paper to move.
4. Explain: The movement of the paper is caused by the difference in pressure
between the air inside the straw and the static air outside the straw. This is
similar to how a pitot tube works to measure the velocity of a fluid.
 A gate is an opening in a dam or other hydraulic structure to control the passage
of water. It has the same hydraulic properties as the orifice. In using gates. calibration
test are advisable if accurate measurements are to be obtained since its coefficient of
discharge varies widely.

The following illustrations show the two different flow conditions through the sluice gate.

Figure 6.6.1(a): Free Flow Figure 6.6.2. (b): Submerged Flow

In Figure 6.6.1 (a), writing the energy equation between 1 and 2 neglecting head lost:

𝐸1 = 𝐸2

𝑣12 𝑝1 𝑣22 𝑝2
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾
𝑝1 𝑝2
Where = 𝑑1 and = 𝑑2
𝛾 𝛾

𝑣12 𝑣22
+ 𝑑1 + 0 = + 𝑑2 + 0
2𝑔 2𝑔

𝑣22 𝑣12
− = 𝑑1 − 𝑑2
2𝑔 2𝑔
 𝑣22 − 𝑣12 = 2𝑔(𝑑1 − 𝑑2 )

Theoretical 𝑣 = √2𝑔(𝑑1 − 𝑑2 ) + 𝑣12

Actual 𝑣 = 𝐶𝑣 √2𝑔(𝑑1 − 𝑑2 ) + 𝑣12

Actual 𝑄 = 𝐶𝐴√2𝑔(𝑑1 − 𝑑2 ) + 𝑣12

𝑑2
Coefficient of contraction, 𝐶 𝑐 = 𝑦

Where:

C=CCCV (varies from 0.61 to 0.91)

A=by

b=width of the flume

1. A sluice gate is used to control the flow in an open channel. The flow is uniform at
sections 1 and 2 and the pressure is hydrostatic. Without considering bottom friction
or atmospheric pressure, determine the velocities V1 and V2 given that h1 = 6
meters, h2 = 1 meter, and b = 5 meters.

Solution:
Assume steady incompresible flow with no variation across the width b. The inlet and
outlet mass flows balance:
ℎ
𝑚 = 𝜌𝑉1 ℎ1 𝑏  =  𝜌𝑉2 ℎ2 𝑏 .: 𝑉2 =   ℎ1 𝑉1
2
 

∑ 𝐹𝑥   =  𝐹𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒 +  𝜌1 𝐴1   −  𝜌2 𝐴2   =  𝑚(𝑉2 −  𝑉1 )

 

ℎ1 ℎ2 ℎ1
−𝐹𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒 + 𝛾 (ℎ1 𝑏) − 𝛾 (ℎ2 𝑏) =  𝑚 ( (𝑉1 − 𝑉1 ))
2 2 ℎ2

𝑚 = 𝜌ℎ1 𝑏𝑉1

Solve for F gate and eliminate 𝑉2 using mass flow relation.

2𝑔(ℎ1 − ℎ2)
𝑉1 =  √
ℎ1 2
( ) −1
ℎ2
 2(9.81)(1) 𝑚
𝑉1 =  √ =  1.67 
1+6 𝑠

𝒉𝟏 𝒎
𝑽𝟐 =   𝒗𝟏 =  𝟔(𝟏. 𝟔𝟕𝟒)  =  𝟏𝟎. 𝟎𝟓 
𝒉𝟐 𝒔

2: Given a sluice gate that flows into a horizontal channel, as illustrated in the figure,
calculate the flow rate in meters per width of the gate at a height of 1.0 meters and a
depth of 6 meters. Assume that the pressure at sections 1 and 2 is equal to atmospheric
pressure and ignore friction losses in the channel. Utilize a coefficient of contraction of
0.85 and a coefficient of velocity of 0.95.

Solution:
𝑑2 =  𝐶𝑐  𝑥 𝑦
𝑑2 =  0.85 𝑥 1  =  0.85 𝑚

Energy equation between 1 and 2 neglecting losses:

𝐻1 =  𝐻2

𝑉12 𝑉22
+  6  = +  0.85
2𝑔 2𝑔

𝑉22 − 𝑉12
= 5.15
2𝑔

𝑉22 − 𝑉12 = 101.043

 𝑄1 =  𝑄2
(6𝑥1)𝑣1 =  (0.85𝑥1)𝑣2

𝑣1 =  0.14𝑣2

𝑉22 − (0.14𝑣2 )2 = 101.043

0.08𝑉22 =  101.043 
𝑚
𝑉2=  10.15 
𝑠

Actual Velocity = 0.95(10.15) = 9.65 m/s

𝒎𝟑
Discharge = (0.85x1) (9.65) = 𝟖. 𝟐  𝒔
𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓

3: Water is flowing through an opening with a height of 0.4 meters, beneath a sluice
gate. The width of the sluice gate is 3 meters, and the distance from the water surface
to the bottom of the sluice gate is 10 meters.

Solution:
0.4
Since ℎ1 > ℎ2 and depth ratio 10
< 0.2, Contraction coeffficient = 0.61.

𝑄  = 𝐶𝑐 𝐴√2𝑔𝐻

𝑄  = 0.61 (0.4)(0.3)√2(9.81)(10)

𝒎𝟑
𝑸  = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 
𝒔
4: A sluice, made of finished concrete and having a slope of 0.004, is being supplied
with water from a large reservoir through a sharp-edged gate. The coefficient of
contraction is 0.82 and the coefficient of friction is 0.86. Determine the distance from the
contraction point at which the water depth increases by 30 mm.

Solution:
𝑉12 𝑉22
+ 𝑌1 =   + 𝑌2
2𝑔 2𝑔

𝑉22
0 + 12  =   + 0.2460
2(2(9.81))

𝑦2 =  (0.30)(0.82)  =  0.25 𝑚
𝑚
𝑉2 =  15.18 
𝑠
𝑄𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 𝑦2 𝑣2

𝑚3
( 𝑠 )
𝑄{𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙  =  (0.25)(15.18)  =  3.73 
𝑚
𝑚3
) (
𝑠
𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙   =  (0.86)(3.734)  =  3.21 
𝑚
∆𝑦𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚  =  0.25 + 0.03  =  0.28 𝑚

1−(3.21)2
9.807(0.276)3
∆𝑥 =   (0.30)
0.012 2 3.212
0.0004 − ( ) ( 4 )
1
( (0.276)3(0.276)2 )
∆𝒙 =  𝟏𝟑. 𝟔𝟎 𝒎
5: Given the flow under the sluice gate in the figure, with y1 = 9 ft and y2 = 0.861 ft, and
disregarding all losses except dissipation in the jump, find y3 and the percentage
dissipation. Assume that the channel is horizontal and wide.

Solution:
Solving 𝑦3
2𝑦3
= −1 + √(1 + 8(𝑁𝑓)22 )
𝑦2
23.0
𝑁𝑓2 = =  4.37
√(32.2)(0.861)
2𝑦3
= −1 + √(1 + 8(4.37)2 )
0.861
𝒚𝟑 =  𝟒. 𝟗𝟏 𝒇𝒕

Solving for 𝐸1  𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸2

 (𝑦3 − 𝑦2 )3
𝐸1 =
4𝑦3 𝑦2
 (4.91 − 0.861)3
𝐸1 = =  𝟑. 𝟗𝟑 𝒇𝒕
4(4.91)(0.861)
2𝑉2
𝐸2 = 𝑦2 + 2𝑔

𝟐𝟑𝟐
𝑬𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟏 + =  𝟗. 𝟎𝟖 𝒇𝒕
𝟐(𝟑𝟐. 𝟐)

For Percent Dissipation

𝟑.𝟗𝟑
% Dissipation = (𝟗.𝟎𝟖) (𝟏𝟎𝟎%) = 43.3%
Did you know?

• As high dams and large reservoirs continue to be built and the level of metal
structure manufacturing improves, hydraulic gates are being designed to handle
higher water heads, larger orifices, and greater discharging capacity.

• This leads to an increase in the load and weight of the gates. Some of the largest
gates in the world include the Bureya hydropower Tainter gate, measuring 63 x
17.5 m2 (He 1993); the Xiluodu Tainter gate, with a maximum weight of 702
tons; the Inguri Tainter gate, with a maximum head of 181 m; and the
Rotterdam new waterway tidal gate, with a maximum span of 360 m.

Figure 6.6. 3. Bureya Hydropower Figure 6.6. 4 Xiluodu dam

Figure 6.6. 5 Inguri dam Figure 6.6. 6 Rotterdam new

waterway
Fun Activity about Gates

One fun activity that teaches about hydraulic gates is to build a model of a
hydraulic gate using PVC pipes and valves. Students can experiment with different pipe
diameters and valve types to observe the effect on flow rate and gate opening. They
can also try different pressure settings to see how they affect the gate's movement.

Another activity is to create a simulation using a fluid dynamics software where

students can design and test different hydraulic gate configurations. This will give them
a deeper understanding of how the gate's design, pressure and flow rate affects its
performance.

Additionally, students can visit a local dam or canal and observe the real-life
operation of hydraulic gates. They can analyze the design and function of the gates and
compare it to the model they built in the classroom. This will give them a better
understanding of how hydraulic gates are used in real-world applications
Standard Short Tube
A standard short tube is the one with a square-cornered entrance and has a

length of about 2.5 times its internal diameter.

Figure 6.7.1
Figure 6.7.1 shows a condition when the flow starts suddenly with high heads so
that the jet may not touch the walls of the pipe. (L=2.5D)

Figure 6.7.2
Figure 6.7.2 shows a condition when the jet touches the walls of the tube. The
discharge through this tube is about one-third greater than that of the standard sharp-
edged orifice but velocity of flow is lesser.
where:
𝐶𝑐 = 1.0

C= 𝐶𝑣 = 0.82
H = total head

𝑉𝑛 = 0.82√2𝑔𝐻

Converging Tubes

Conical converging tubes are shaped like a cone with a cut-off top, and are
placed next to a tank or reservoir. If the tube is shaped to match the shape of the fluid
jet at the point of minimum cross-sectional area (vena contracta), then energy loss can
be reduced. This type of tube is called a convergent mouthpiece.

Figure 6.7.3
For Converging Tubes:

v= 𝐶𝑣 √2𝑔𝐻

Q= CA√2𝑔𝐻
 Table 6.7.1 Coefficients for Conical Converging Tubes

Angle of Convergence,

Coeffi 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 40 50
cient

Cv 0.829 0.911 0.947 0.965 0.971 0.973 0.976 0.981 0.984

Cc 1.000 0.999 0.992 0.972 0.952 0.935 0.918 0.888 0.859

C 0.829 0.910 0,939 0.938 0.924 0.911 0.896 0.871 0.845

Diverging Tubes

A diverging tube is shaped like a cone with the smaller end next to a tank or
reservoir. To reduce energy loss when the fluid jet expands, the tube can be made to
gradually widen, called a divergent mouthpiece. The efficiency of this type of tube
(coefficient of discharge) depends on the angle at which it widens and the length of the
tube.

Figure 6.7.4

Re-entrant Tubes

A Bonta's Mouthpiece is a type of re-entrant tube, which is a tube that has its
ends inside a tank or reservoir. It is a specific type of re-entrant tube, which is a thin
tube that projects into a tank for a length of about the same size as its diameter.

An internal mouthpiece is a tube that is attached to the circular opening (orifice)

of a tank or reservoir and projects inside it. This type of mouthpiece allows for both free-
flow (Figure 6.7.5) and full-flow ((Figure 6.7.6) conditions to be achieved as it projects
inwardly and can be observed in both running free and running full conditions.

Figure 6.7.5 Figure 6.7.6

Submerged Tubes

A submerged tube is a tube that is completely or partially submerged in a fluid,

such as water or air. They are commonly used in fluid flow measurement and control
applications. Some examples of submerged tubes include orifices or nozzles that are
submerged in a liquid or gas to measure flow rate

Another example of a submerged tube is a culvert conveying water through

embankments.

Figure 6.7.7 Submerged Tube (Culvert)

The discharge through a submerged tube is given by the equation:

Q= CA√2𝑔𝐻

Where:
C = coefficient of discharge
A = area of the opening
H = difference in elevation of the liquid surface

1. A Borda's 40 mm diameter mouthpiece discharges with a continuous 1.5 m head.

Find the coefficient of contraction and the discharge when the mouthpiece is running
free if the coefficient of velocity for the mouthpiece's entrance section is 0.95. Assume
that a vena-contracta has formed in the mouthpiece, with the coefficient of contraction
being the same as when the mouthpiece is running free.

Solution:
For Borda’s mouthpiece running free:
𝑎𝑐 𝑔𝐻
= 2
𝑎 𝑣𝑐

𝑣 = 𝐶𝑣  √2𝑔𝐻

Coefficient of Contraction
𝑎𝑐 1
= 𝐶𝑐 = 2
𝑎 2𝐶𝑉
1
𝐶𝑐 = =  0.55
2((0.95)2 )

Discharge (Q)
𝑄  = 𝑎𝑐 𝑉𝑐 =  𝐶𝑐 𝑎 𝑥 𝐶𝑣√2𝑔𝐻

1
Q = 𝑄  = 0.554 𝑥  (2(0.95)2) 𝑥0.95𝑥√2(9.81)(1.5)
1
𝑄  = 0.554 𝑥  ( ) 𝑥0.95𝑥√2(9.81)(1.5)
2(0.95)2

𝑸  = 𝟑. 𝟓𝟖𝟖𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟑 = 𝟑. 𝟓𝟗 𝒍/𝒔
2. A 1.5 m diameter culvert transports water from streams. Its ends were immersed with
a water level difference of 2.35 m. What is the discharge of the 7 m long culvert?
Assume C = 0.62.

Figure 6.7.8
Solution:

Q= CA√2𝑔𝐻
(1.5)2 𝜋
𝑄  =  0.62 ( 4
√2(9.81)(2.35))

𝒎𝟑
𝑸  =  𝟕. 𝟒𝟒 
𝒔

3. The short tube in the figure discharges water under 3.75 m. The upper end of the
piezometer tube, whose lower end is submerged in a certain fluid, is connected to the
tube through into the side of the tube 60 mm from the entrance. What height will the
fluid in the tube reach ignoring the vapor pressure? Compute also the absolute pressure
at the piezometer's uppermost end.

Figure 6.7.9
Solution:
For standard short tubes:
𝑃𝑎
=   − 0.82 𝐻
𝛾

For Absolute Pressure

𝑃𝑎
=   − 0.82 (3.75)
𝛾
𝑃𝑎
=   − 3.075
𝛾
𝑃𝑎 =   − 3.075(9.81)
𝑃𝑎 =   − 30.17 𝑘𝑃𝑎

For Height ignoring vapor pressure

𝑃 30.17
ℎ = 𝛾𝑎 = 9.81(13.6)
𝑚

𝒉 =  𝟎. 𝟐𝟑  =  𝟐𝟑𝟎 𝒎𝒎

4. A Borda's mouthpiece, which has a 170 mm diameter, releases water with a 2.5 m
head. What is the discharge at the vena contracta? (m3/s)

Solution:
For Borda’s mouthpiece
𝐶𝑐 =  0.5 𝐶𝑣 =  1.0

Discharge at vena contracta

𝑄 = 𝐶𝐴 √2𝑔𝐻

𝐶 = 𝐶𝑐  𝑥 𝐶𝑣
𝐶 = 0.5(1.0)  =  0.50
(0.17)2 𝜋
𝑄  =  0.5 √2(9.81)(2.5)
4
𝒎𝟑
𝑸 =  𝟎. 𝟎𝟖  𝒔
5. The rate of liquid discharge from a 68 mm-diameter aperture is 21.47 liters per
second. 2.76 m in diameter. Callipering reveals that the jet at the vena contracta has a
diameter of 56.55 mm. Determine the coefficients of contraction.

Figure 6.7.10

Solution:
Coefficient of Contraction
𝑎 𝑑2
𝐶𝑐 =   =
𝐴 𝐷2
56.55
𝐶𝑐 =   68

𝑪𝒄 =  𝟎. 𝟖𝟑
FUN FACT
Do you know that Borda's mouthpiece was originally used to measure the flow of water
in canals, rivers and harbors. Jean Charles de Borda, the inventor of the device, was a
French naval officer and mathematician who used the mouthpiece to measure the flow
rate of water in the French canals and harbors to improve navigation and shipping. He
used his device for the first time on the river Seine in 1797, and then applied it on
several other locations.

Jean Charles de Borja Seine River, 1797

UNSTEADY FLOW (ORIFICE)
The flow through an orifice, weir, or tube is considered steady if the total head
that produces the flow (H) remains constant. This means that the amount of fluid
discharged over a period of time (t) can be calculated using the formula:

Vol = Qt
Where:
Vol = volume
Q = discharge (steady)

However, the head, or pressure, over an orifice, tube, or weir may change as the
fluid flows out, making the flow unsteady.

For unsteady flow

𝑑𝑉
𝑑𝑉 = (𝑄𝑖𝑛 − 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 )𝑑𝑡 .: 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑄
𝑖𝑛 − 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡

Where:
dV = differential volume lost over a differential time
dt = differential time

For h as head over the outlet

𝐴𝑠 𝑑ℎ ℎ2 𝐴𝑠 𝑑ℎ
𝑑𝑉 = 𝐴𝑠 𝑑ℎ .: 𝑑𝑡 =
𝑄𝑖𝑛 − 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡
.: 𝑡 = ∫ℎ1
𝑄𝑖𝑛 − 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡

where:
As= Surface Area
dh = differential h level

When there's no inflow (Qin=0)

ℎ2
𝐴𝑠 𝑑ℎ
𝑡=∫
ℎ1  𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡
Outflow through orifice or tube

𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐶𝐴√2𝑔𝐻

Tanks with constant cross-sectional area and outflow through orifice

𝐴𝑠 𝑑ℎ
𝑡= √𝐻1 − 𝐻2
𝐶𝐴𝑠  √2𝑔

For Submerged orifice/tube connecting tanks

ℎ1
1 𝐴𝑠1 𝐴𝑠2 1
𝑡= ∫ 𝐻 2 𝑑𝐻
𝐶𝐴0  √2𝑔 ℎ2  𝐴𝑠1 + 𝐴𝑠2

Figure 6.8.1
For constant 𝐴𝑠1 and 𝐴𝑠2
𝐴𝑠1 𝐴𝑠2 2
𝑡=   (√𝐻1 − 𝐻2)
𝐴𝑠1 + 𝐴𝑠2 𝐶𝐴0  √2𝑔

Unsteady flow through an orifice can be caused by a variety of factors, such as

changes in the fluid's velocity or pressure, changes in the size or shape of the orifice, or
changes in the fluid's temperature or viscosity. Understanding and controlling unsteady
flow through an orifice is important in a wide range of industrial and scientific
applications, such as in fluid dynamics and hydraulic systems.
1. Find the amount of fluid that flows through the orifice, which has a diameter of
137mm, as shown in the figure. (C=0.74)

Figure 6.8.2
Solution:
Height
𝐻 = 𝐻𝑢𝑝𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚 − 𝐻𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚
40 17
𝐻 =5+ −
9.81 9.81
𝑯 = 𝟕. 𝟑𝟒 𝒎

Discharge
𝑄 =  𝐶𝐴√2𝑔𝐻
(0.137)2𝜋
𝑄 =  (0.74) ( ) √2(9.81)(7.34)
4

𝟎. 𝟏𝟑𝒎𝟑
𝑸= 
𝒔
2. Calculate the amount of fluid that flows out of the end-cap orifice, which has a
diameter of 7 inches and is located on a pipe with a diameter of 8 inches, given that the
coefficient of discharge is 0.9 and the head (the difference in height between the fluid
level on the upstream and downstream side of the orifice) is 14 inches.

Solution:
𝑄 =  𝐶𝐴√2𝑔𝐻
𝑓𝑡 3
𝑄 =  𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ arg 𝑒 𝑠

C = 0.9
g = 32.2 ft/s2
H = 14 inches

1𝑓𝑡
𝑄 =  (0.9)(0.064)√2(32.3)(14)
12 𝑖𝑛

𝒇𝒕𝟑
𝑸  =  𝟒. 𝟗𝟗  𝒔

3. A jet of water is flowing out of an orifice on the side of a large tank, and the height
difference between the water level inside the tank and the point where the jet strikes the
ground is 3.5 meters. If the jet strikes the ground 1.7 meters below the orifice, how far
horizontally from the point of maximum constriction (vena contracta) does the jet hit the
ground?

Figure 6.8.3
Solution:
𝑔𝑥 2
𝑦 =  𝑥𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 −
2𝑣02 cos 2 𝜃

𝑦 =   − 1.7 𝑚

𝑣0 =  √2𝑔𝐻

𝑣0 =  √2(9.81)(3.5)
 𝑚
𝑣0 =  8.29 
𝑠
9.81𝑥 2
−1.7 𝑚  =  𝑥 tan 0 ° − 2(8.29)2 cos2 0°

𝒙 =  𝟒. 𝟖𝟖 𝒎

4. A 75 mm square orifice with a coefficient of discharge of 0.7 is located on one side of

a closed cylindrical tank. A mercury manometer shows that the pressure at the top of
the tank is 200 mm Hg. The upper 3 meters of the tank is filled with oil (density of 0.80)
and the rest is filled with water. How do you calculate the discharge through the orifice?

Figure 6.8.4
Solution:

𝑄 =  𝐶𝐴√2𝑔𝐻

𝐻 =  3 + 3(0.8)  +  (−0.2)(13.6)
𝐻 =  2.68 𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

𝑄  = 0.7(0.075)2  √2(9.81)(2.68)

𝒎𝟑
𝑸  = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑 
𝒔
5. A steel barge, shaped like a rectangle, is floating with a draft of 1.5 meters. The
barge is 10 meters long, 5 meters wide, and 2 meters deep. An orifice, 180 mm in
diameter, is opened on the bottom of the barge. How long will it take for the barge to
sink to the top edge, taking into account the coefficient of discharge of 0.60 and ignoring
the thickness of the vertical sides?

Figure 6.8.5

Solution:
When orifice is open, barge will sink at 𝑉  =  𝑉𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒
Since 𝐴𝑏 arg 𝑒 is constant, and neglecting thickness, barge will sink at depth = depth of
water inside.
Thus, head is constant at 1.5 m.

𝑉 =  𝑄𝑡
𝑉 =  5(10)(0.5)

𝑉 =  25𝑚3

𝑄 =  𝐶𝐴√2𝑔𝐻

(0.18)2 𝜋
𝑄 =  0.6  √2(9.81)(1.5)
4
25  =  0.08283𝑡
𝒕 = 𝟑𝟎𝟏. 𝟖𝟑 𝒔
FUN FACT:
Do you know that an unsteady flow through an orifice was also used to create musical
instrument, called a "Theremin" invented by Russian physicist Lev Sergeevich Termen
in 1920. It works by controlling the frequency of the unsteady flow through an orifice,
and the player can control the pitch of the note by moving their hands near the antenna.

Figure 6.8.6 Lev Sergeevich with a Theremin instrument.

 A weir is a device that controls the flow of water from a reservoir or pond,
typically utilizing a horizontal surface over which the water flows. Weirs are used in
dams, detention basins, and sewage treatment plants. It is also a measurement tool in
natural streams and treatment facilities.

Figure 6.9.1. Typical Weir Discharging Freely to a Downstream Channel.

The force that drives the water over the weir is quantified as the head H, which is the
distance above the crest. As seen in Figure 6.9.1 (a) Profile, the water level in the
reservoir drops as it nears the weir due to the increase in velocity, which is balanced by
a decrease in the cross-sectional area, as per the continuity equation. To accurately
measure H, it is typically taken at a point a minimum of 2.5H upstream of the crest,
where the velocity is close to zero.

Classification of Weirs:
In terms of cross-sectional shape:
1. Rectangular
 2. Triangular
3. Trapezoidal
4. Circular
5. Parabolic
In terms of flow:
1. Free – If the water downstream from the weir is lower than the crest
2. Submerged – If the water downstream is higher than the crest

Rectangular Weir
The rate of flow or discharge over a rectangular weir is computed by the weir formula,

𝑄 = 𝑐𝑤 𝐿𝐻 3⁄2
where Q = discharge
𝐶𝑤 = weir factor
L = effective crest length
H = head above crest

Considering the velocity approach, the formula of the rate of flow or discharge is

𝑄 = 𝐶𝑤 𝐿[(𝐻 + (ℎ𝑣 )3⁄2 −(ℎ𝑣 )3⁄2 ]

3⁄2
𝐻 2 3 𝐶2
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑤 𝐿𝐻 [(1 + 𝐶1 ( ) ] 𝐶1 = ×
𝑑 2 2𝑔

where d = depth of water upstream, H + P

Figure 6.9.2. Rectangular Weir

Sharp-Crested Weir
A rectangular, sharp-crested weir is a fundamental type of weir and is used for
measuring flow in channels, as well as for basic spillway structures. The flow rate, Q,
for this kind of weir can be calculated based on the weir's dimensions, the channel's
dimensions, and the head, H. The figure provided illustrates the parameters used to
determine Q for a sharp-crested weir.
 Figure 6.9.3. Hydraulic Elements of Sharp-Crested Weir

When water flows over the vertical sides of a weir, energy is lost, known as
contraction. To account for this loss, the actual length of the weir is reduced to a lesser
value known as the effective length, L, which is calculated by taking into account the
contraction effect.
𝐿 = 𝐿′ − 0.1𝑛𝐻
where L’ = actual measured crest length
n = number of contractions
H = head above crest

Standard Weir Factor (𝑪𝒘 ) Formulas:

Francis formula:
For rectangular weirs from 1.07m to 5.18m
long under heads from 180mm to 490mm

𝐻 2
𝐶𝑤 = 1.84 [1 + 0.26 ( ) ] (𝑆. 𝐼. 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠)
𝑑

For h/p < 0.4, the following 𝐶𝑤 may be used

SI unit, 𝐶𝑤 = 1.84

English, 𝐶𝑤 = 3.33

Rehbock and Chow formula:

𝐻
SI unit, 𝐶𝑤 = 1.80 + 0.22 𝑑

𝐻
English, 𝐶𝑤 = 3.27 + 0.40 𝑑
 Bazin formula:
For rectangular weirs from 0.5 m to 2.0m
Long under heads from 50mm to 600mm

0.02161 𝐻 2
𝐶𝑤 = 0.5518 [3.248 + ] [1 + 0.55 ( ) ]
𝐻 𝑑

V-Notch Weir
A variation of the sharp-crested weir is the V-notch or triangular weir, which is
used for measuring flow when low flow rates are anticipated. The flow rate over a V-
notch weir is calculated using a variation of the equation, which is different from the
sharp-crested weir equation.
8 𝜃 𝜃
𝑄= 𝐶 √2𝑔 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( ) 𝐻 5⁄2 = 𝐶𝑤 {𝑡𝑎𝑛 } 𝐻 5⁄2
15 2 2
Where 𝜃 is the angle (in degrees) made by the notch as shown in the figure below.

For standard 90° weir.

𝑄 = 1.4𝐻 5⁄2 (𝑆𝐼 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠)

𝑄 = 2.5𝐻 5⁄2 (𝐸𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑖𝑠ℎ 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠)

Figure 6.9.4. Hydraulic Elements of V-Notch Weir

Trapezoidal Sharp Crested Weir

The discharge from a trapezoidal weir is assumed the same from rectangular
weir and triangular weir combined.

𝑄 = 𝐶𝑤1 𝐿𝐻 3⁄2 + 𝐶𝑤1 𝑍𝐻 5⁄2

𝑏
𝑍=
𝐻
 Figure 6.9.5. Trapezoidal Weir

Cipoletti Weir
A Cipoletti weir is a trapezoidal version of the sharp-crested weir that aims to
correct for the loss of flow caused by contractions at the vertical edges of a rectangular
weir. By inclining the edges at approximately a 1:4 ratio (horizontal to vertical), the
increasing cross-sectional area of flow as the head H increases compensates for the
loss of flow at the end contraction.

𝑄 = 1.859𝐿𝐻 3⁄2 (𝑆𝐼 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠)

Suttro or Proportional Flow Weir

A shape for which the discharge varies linearly with head
1
𝑄= 𝐶𝜋𝐾√2𝑔 𝐻
2
𝐾 = 2𝑥 √𝑦

Figure 6.9.6. Proportional Flow Weir

Submerged Weir
2 𝑣𝑎 2 3⁄2 𝑣𝑎 2 3⁄2
𝑄1 = 𝐶 √2𝑔𝐿 [(𝐻 − ℎ) + ( ) −( ) ] (𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑟)
3 2𝑔 2𝑔

𝑄2 = 𝐶𝐿ℎ√2𝑔(𝐻 − ℎ) + 𝑣𝑎 2 (𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑒)

𝑄𝑠𝑢𝑏 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2
 Figure 6.9.7. Submerged Weir

1. During a test on a 2.4m suppressed weir 900mm high, the head was maintained
at a constant H=300mm. In 38 seconds, 280,800 liters of water were collected.
What is the weir factor?
Given:
𝐻 = 0.3𝑚
𝑑 = 1.2𝑚

𝑃 = 0.9𝑚

𝐿 = 2.4𝑚
Required:
𝐶𝑤 =?

Solution:
Considering velocity of approach:

𝑄 = 𝐶𝑤 𝐿[(𝐻 + (ℎ𝑣 )3⁄2 −(ℎ𝑣 )3⁄2 ]

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 28,800
𝑄= = = 757.8947368𝐿/𝑠
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 38
𝑄 = 0.7578947368 𝑚3 /𝑠
𝑄 0.7578947368
Velocity of approach 𝑣𝑎 = = (2.4)(1.2)
𝐴

𝑣𝑎 = 0.2631578947 𝑚/𝑠
𝑣𝑎 2 0.26315789472
ℎ𝑣 = = (2)(9.81)
= 0.3529667561𝑚
2𝑔
 0.7578947368 = 𝐶𝑤 (2.4)[(0.3 + (0.3529667561)3⁄2 −(0.3529667561)3⁄2 ]

𝑪𝒘 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟓𝟐𝟔𝟑𝟏𝟓𝟕𝟗 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟓

2. Determine the discharge of the weir having a head of 0.30m in lit/sec.

(a) If a contracted rectangular weir 2m long is used (both side contraction)
(b) Considering one-side contraction
Given:
𝐿′ = 2𝑚

𝐻 = 0.3𝑚

Required:
𝑄 =?
Solution:
(a) Both side contraction:
𝐿 = 𝐿′ − 0.1𝑛𝐻

𝐿 = 2 − 0.1(2)(0.3) = 1.94

𝑄 = 𝑐𝑤 𝐿𝐻 3⁄2
Using Francis Formula:
𝐶𝑤 = 1.84

𝑄 = (1.84)(1.94)(0.3)3⁄2

𝑄 = 0.5865451324𝑚3 /𝑠

𝑸 = 𝟓𝟖𝟔. 𝟓𝟒𝟓𝟏𝟑𝟐𝟒𝑳/𝒔 = 𝟓𝟖𝟔. 𝟓𝟓𝑳/𝒔

(b) One side contraction:

𝐿 = 𝐿′ − 0.1𝑛𝐻

𝐿 = 2 − 0.1(1)(0.3) = 1.97

𝑄 = 𝑐𝑤 𝐿𝐻 3⁄2
Using Francis Formula:
𝐶𝑤 = 1.84

𝑄 = (1.84)(1.97)(0.3)3⁄2

𝑄 = 0.5956154179𝑚3 /𝑠

𝑸 = 𝟓𝟗𝟓. 𝟔𝟏𝟓𝟒𝟏𝟕𝟗𝑳/𝒔 = 𝟓𝟗𝟓. 𝟔𝟐𝑳/𝒔

3. Determine the discharge of the weir having a head of 0.30m in lit/sec.

 (a) If a 90 degrees V-notch weir is used
(b) If 65 degrees, C = 0.75
Given:
𝐻 = 0.3𝑚
Required:
𝑄 =?

Solution:
(a) 𝜃 = 90°

𝑄 = 1.4𝐻 5⁄2

𝑄 = 1.4(0.3)5⁄2

𝑄 = 0.06901304225𝑚3 /𝑠

𝑸 = 𝟔𝟗. 𝟎𝟏𝟑𝟎𝟒𝟐𝟐𝟓𝑳/𝒔 = 𝟔𝟗. 𝟎𝟏𝑳/𝒔

(b) 𝜃 = 65° ∶ 𝐶 = 0.75

8 𝜃
𝑄= 𝐶 √2𝑔 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( ) 𝐻 5⁄2
15 2
8 65
𝑄= (0.75)√2(9.81) 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( ) (0.3)5⁄2
15 2
𝑄 = 0.0556416451𝑚3 /𝑠
𝟔𝟒𝟏𝟔𝟒𝟓𝟏𝑳
𝑸 = 𝟓𝟓. = 𝟓𝟓. 𝟔𝟒𝑳/𝒔
𝒔

4. Find the discharge flowing over a sharp-crested weir, as shown below, if the
crest elevation is 282.00 and the impoundment elevation is 283.75

Given:
𝐿′ = 5.33𝑚

𝑑 = 2.85
 Required:
𝑄 =?

Solution:
𝐿 = 𝐿′ − 0.1𝑛𝐻

𝐿 = 5.33 − 0.1(2)(1.75)

𝐿 = 4.98 𝑓𝑡
𝐻
𝐶𝑤 = 3.27 + 0.40 𝑑

1.75
𝐶𝑤 = 3.27 + (0.40) 2.85

𝐶𝑤 = 3.515614035

𝑄 = 𝑐𝑤 𝐿𝐻 3⁄2

𝑄 = (3.515314035)(4.98)(1.75)3⁄2

𝑸 = 𝟒𝟎. 𝟓𝟑𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟔𝟕𝟑𝒇𝟑 /𝒔 = 𝟒𝟎. 𝟓𝟑 𝒇𝟑 /𝒔

5. The heights pf water on the upstream and downstream side of a submerged weir
of length 3.5m are 300, and 150mm respectively. If C for free and drowned
portions are 0.60 and 0.8 respectively. Find the discharge over it.
Given:
𝐿 = 3.5𝑚

𝐻 = 300𝑚𝑚 = 0.3𝑚

ℎ = 150𝑚𝑚 = 0.15𝑚

𝐶1 = 0.6

𝐶2 = 0.8
Required:
𝑄𝑠𝑢𝑏 =?

Solution:
𝑄𝑠𝑢𝑏 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2

2
𝑄𝑠𝑢𝑏 = (0.6)√2(9.81)(3.5)(0.3 − 0.15)3⁄2
3
+ (0.8)(2.5)√2(9.81)(0.3 − 0.15)

𝑄𝑠𝑢𝑏 = 0.36 + 0.72

𝑸𝒔𝒖𝒃 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟖𝒎𝟑 /𝒔
6. A hyperbolic shape narrowing down a weir, has a discharge of 0.36 𝑚3 /𝑠.
Compute foe the coefficient of discharge if the x and y intercept of the hyperbole
is 0.1 and 0.5625m respectively under a head of 0.6m.

Given:
𝑄 = 0.36𝑚3 /𝑠

𝑥 = 0.1𝑚

𝑦 = 0.5625𝑚

𝐻 = 0.6𝑚
Required:
𝐶 =?

Solution:
1
𝑄 = 2 𝐶𝜋𝐾 √2𝑔 𝐻

𝐾 = 2𝑥 √𝑦

𝐾 = 2(0.1)√0.5625

𝐾 = 0.15
1
0.36 = 2 (𝐶)𝜋(0.15)√2(9.81) (0.6)

𝑪 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟕𝟒𝟖𝟗𝟕𝟕𝟓𝟓𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟕
Activity: How Weir Works
To demonstrate how a weir works is to create a homemade weir using materials that
can be found around the house. Here are the steps to make a simple weir and conduct
the activity:

1. Gather materials: You will need a plastic container (such as a small plastic pool), a
piece of wood or cardboard, water, and a ruler.
2. Create the weir: Place the container on a flat surface and fill it with water. Then,
place the piece of wood or cardboard across the top of the container, leaving a
small gap at one end.
3. Conduct the activity: Slowly pour water over the weir, measuring the height of the
water on the downstream side of the weir using the ruler. Observe how the water
level on the downstream side changes as the flow rate over the weir increases.
4. Explain: The water level on the downstream side of the weir is determined by the
height of the weir, the width of the gap, and the flow rate. This is similar to how a
weir controls the flow of water in a river or stream

Trivia!

One of the most famous weirs in

the world is the weir at the mouth of the
River Thames in London, England. This
weir has been in place since the 12th
century and is still in use today to
control the tide and prevent flooding in
the city.
Unsteady Flow Weir (Variable Head)

Figure 6.10.1

𝐻1
𝐴𝑠 𝑑𝐻
𝑡=∫
𝐻2 𝑄0

If the flow is through a suppressed rectangular weir L=L

2𝐴𝑠 1 1
𝑡= [ − ]
𝐶𝑤 𝐿 √𝐻2 √𝐻1

where 𝐶𝑤 = weir factor

L = crest length
𝐴𝑠 = constant water surface area of reservoir or tank

𝐻1 = initial head

𝐻2 = final head
1. A spillway controls a reservoir 4.6 hectares in area. The permanent crest is at
elevation 75m. If the water can be drawn from the elevation 76.5m to elevation
75.5m in 42 minutes, find the length of the spillway in meter. Use Francis formula
neglecting velocity of approach.
Given:
𝐴𝑠 = 4.6 ℎ𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑠 = 46,000𝑚2
𝑡 = 42 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑠 = 2,520 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠
𝐻1 = 1.5𝑚
𝐻2 = 0.5𝑚
Required:
𝐿 =?
Solution:
2𝐴𝑠 1 1
𝑡= [ − ]
𝐶𝑤 𝐿 √𝐻2 √𝐻1

Using Francis formula:

𝐶𝑤 = 1.84

2(46,000) 1 1
2520 = [ − ]
(1.84)𝐿 √0.50 √1.50

𝑳 = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟖𝟓𝟗𝟒𝟔𝟑𝟗𝟐𝒎 = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟖𝟔𝒎

2. A spillway with crest at elevation 125m controls a reservoir 5 hectares in area. If

water can be drawn from elevation 127.8m to elevation 125.5m in 37 minutes,
using Francis Formula, find the length of the spillway in meters.
Given:
𝐴𝑠 = 5 ℎ𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑠 = 50,000𝑚2
𝑡 = 37 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑠
𝐻1 = 127.8 − 125 = 2.8𝑚
𝐻2 = 125.5 − 125 = 0.5𝑚
 Required:

𝐿 =?

Solution:

𝐻 𝐴𝑠 𝑑𝐻
𝑡 = ∫𝐻 1
2 𝑄0

𝑄 = 1.84𝐻 3/2
𝐻 𝐴 𝑑𝐻
𝐿 = ∫𝐻 1 1.84𝑡𝐻
𝑠
3/2
2

2.8 (50,000)𝑑𝐻
𝐿 = ∫0.5 1.84(37×60)𝐻 3/2

𝑳 = 𝟏𝟗. 𝟗𝟗𝟏𝟏𝟔𝟖𝟔𝟕𝒎 = 𝟐𝟎𝒎

3. A rectangular suppressed weir of length 1m is constructed or cut at the top of a

tail rectangular tank having a horizontal section of 20m by 20m. If the initial head
over the weir is 1m, compute the time required to discharge 72 cu.m. of water.

Given:

𝐴𝑠 = 20 × 20𝑚

𝐿 = 1𝑚
𝑉 = 72 𝑐𝑢. 𝑚

Required:

𝑡 =?

Solution:
𝑉𝑖 = (1)(20)(20) = 400𝑚3
𝑉𝑓 = 400 − 72 = 328𝑚3
328 = 𝐻2 (20)(20)
𝐻2 = 0.82𝑚

𝐻1
𝐴𝑠 𝑑𝐻
𝑡=∫
𝐻2 𝑄0

𝑄 = 1.84𝐻 3/2
𝐻 𝐴 𝑑𝐻
𝑡 = ∫𝐻 1 1.84𝐿𝐻
𝑠
3/2
2

1 (20)(20)𝑑𝐻
𝑡 = ∫0.82 1.84(1)𝐻 3/2

𝒕 = 𝟒𝟓. 𝟑𝟓𝟒𝟒𝟔𝟏𝟏𝟗𝒔 = 𝟒𝟑. 𝟑𝟓𝒔

4. A V-notch weir is located or cut at one end of a tank having a cross sectional
square section 10m by 10m. If the initial head on the weir is 1.20m and it takes
375 seconds to discharge 100 cu.m of water, what could have been the vertex
angle of the weir in degrees. Use C=0.90.
Given:

𝐴𝑠 = 100𝑚2
𝑡 = 375𝑠
𝐻1 = 1.2𝑚
𝐻2 = 1.2 − 1 = 0.2𝑚

𝐶 = 0.90

Required:

𝜃 =?

Solution:

𝐻 𝐴𝑠 𝑑𝐻
𝑡 = ∫𝐻 1
2 𝑄0

1.2 100𝑑𝐻
𝑡 = ∫0.2 𝑄0

8 𝜃
𝑄 = 15 𝐶 √2𝑔 𝑡𝑎𝑛 (2) 𝐻 5⁄2

8 𝜃
𝑄 = 15 (0.9)√2(9.81) 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( 2) 𝐻 5⁄2

𝜃
𝑄 = 2.126134521 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( 2) 𝐻 5⁄2

1.2 100𝑑𝐻
375 = ∫0.2 𝜃
2.126134521 𝑡𝑎𝑛( )𝐻 5⁄2
2

1.2 𝜃
7.9725 = ∫0.2 𝑡𝑎𝑛 (2) 𝐻 −5⁄2
𝜃 1.2
7.9725𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( 2) = ∫0.2 𝐻 −5⁄2

𝜃
7.9725𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( 2) = 6.946409409

𝜽 = 𝟖𝟐. 𝟏𝟑𝟏𝟎𝟑𝟎𝟓𝟏° = 𝟖𝟐. 𝟏𝟑°

5. A spillway with crest at elevation 129m controls a reservoir 75, 000𝑚2 in area. If
water can be drawn from elevation 138m to elevation 135m in 40 minutes, using
Francis Formula, find the length of the spillway in meters.
Given:
𝐴𝑠 = 5 ℎ𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑠 = 50,000𝑚2
𝑡 = 37 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑠
𝐻1 = 138 − 129 = 9𝑚
𝐻2 = 135 − 129 = 6𝑚

Required:

𝐿 =?

Solution:

𝐻 𝐴𝑠 𝑑𝐻
𝑡 = ∫𝐻 1
2 𝑄0

𝑄 = 1.84𝐻 3/2
𝐻 𝐴 𝑑𝐻
𝐿 = ∫𝐻 1 1.84𝑡𝐻
𝑠
3/2
2

9 (75,000)𝑑𝐻
𝐿 = ∫6 1.84(40×60)𝐻 3/2

𝑳 = 𝟐. 𝟓𝟒𝟒𝟔𝟔𝟓𝟔𝟔𝟑𝒎 = 𝟐. 𝟓𝟒𝒎
Activity: Principles of Unsteady Flow over a Weir

1. Gather materials: You will need a plastic container or tray, a piece of plastic sheet or
a plastic bag, some clay or putty, and water.

2. Create the weir: Use the clay or putty to create a small dam or weir in the container or
tray. The dam should be high enough to create a small pool of water behind it. Then,
place the plastic sheet or bag over the top of the dam to create an opening.

3. Conduct the activity: Slowly pour water into the container or tray until the water level
reaches the top of the weir. Observe how the water flows over the weir and into the pool
behind it.

4. Explain: The flow of water over the weir is an example of unsteady flow. As the water
level in the pool behind the weir increases, the flow rate over the weir also increases,
which causes the flow to become more turbulent. This activity can be