Water Losses

 Not all rainfall on a catchment results in runoff.

 Runoff can be subdivided into surface and subsurface
runoff . During flood, a portion of rainfall water rapidly
reaching the river by surface runoff (rapid runoff). While,
sub-surface runoff flows to the river slowly.
 Rainfall is lost through interception, and infiltration into the
ground and evapotranspiration. The part that infiltrates
may emerge again to form surface runoff or may result in
deep percolation.
 Water Losses
 The relation between rainfall, water losses and volume of
water reaching a river VT may be expressed:
VT = P - LP
 During flood, the total volume of rapid runoff VR is:
VR = P - LP - LT

where P is Rainfall; Lp is the water losses from interception, deep

percolation and evapotranspiration; LT is the temporary water lost by
infiltration, but slowly reaching the river via subsurface flow; VT is
quantity or water reaching the river.
INFILTRATION

By Dr. Ponselvi
 Introduction
Infiltration: process of water penetrating from ground
surface into the soil and is the source of water to sustain
vegetation growth and groundwater supply.

Ground surface
 Introduction
 Infiltration capacity of soil determines – amount & time
distribution of rainfall excess for runoff from a storm.
 Important for estimation of surface runoff, subsurface flow &
storage of water within watershed.
 Factors affecting: Soil type (size of particles, degree of
aggregation between particles, arrangement of particles,
absorption of moisture); vegetation cover; soil moisture;
rainfall hyetograph; etc.
 Introduction
 Four zones: Saturated, transmission, wetting, and wetting
front


Saturation Zone
TransitionZone

Transmission
Zone

Wetting Zone

Wetting Front

depth
 Introduction
 Infiltration rate, f(t) – rate at which enters the soil at the
surface (in/hr or cm/hr).
 Cumulative infiltration, F(t) – accumulated depth of water
infiltrating during given time period.

t
f, F
F
F (t )   f ( )d
0

dF (t )
f (t ) 
dt f

t
 Methods of Determining Infiltration
The methods for determining infiltration are:
I. Infiltration Measurement – Ring Infiltrometers; Sprinkler Method
(measure input and runoff, infiltration by difference); Field
Measurement of water content during rain events - Tensiometer,
Capacitance , or TDR devices.
II. Observation in pits and ponds
III. Placing a catch basin below a laboratory sample
IV. Artificial rainfall simulator
V. Hydrograph analysis : rainfall-runoff plot
VI. Important methods: Horton’s equation; Richard’s eqn.; Green-
Ampt eqn.; Philips eqn.; Darcy’s eqn.; SCS eqn.; Holtan eqn.;
Kostiakov eqn.; Infiltration Indices etc.
Measurement-Infiltrometer
Single Ring

Tube infiltration

Double Ring

Typical infiltration curve

 Infiltration Estimation
Horton’s Eqn.: infiltration starts at a constant rate f0 and is
decreasing exponentially with time t:
ft = fc + (f0 − fc) e− kt
where, ft- infiltration rate at time t; fc- initial infiltration rate or
maximum infiltration rate; f0 - constant or equilibrium infiltration rate
after the soil has been saturated or minimum infiltration rate; k – decay
constant specific to the soil.

 The maximum rate at which the soil in any given condition is

capable of absorbing water is called the ultimate fp (= 1.25 to 2.0
cm/hr). Infiltration (ft) at any given time t often begins at a high
rate (20 to 25 cm/hr) and decreases to a fairly steady state rate (fc)
as the rain continues, as described in the below figure.
 Infiltration Estimation

Infiltration Curve (Horton)

• The infiltration takes place at capacity rates only when the

intensity of rainfall equals or exceeds fp; i.e., ft = fp when i ≥
fp; but when i < fp, ft < fp and the actual infiltration rates are
approximately equal to the rainfall rates.
 Infiltration Estimation
Green-Ampt Eqn.: accounts for many variables that other
methods, such as Darcy's law, do not. It is a function of the soil
suction head, porosity, hydraulic conductivity and time.
 The method assumes that the wetting front as water infiltrates into the soil
is a sharp boundary dividing soil of moisture content = θi with the saturated
soil (moisture content = θs) above.
 The concept is as illustrated below:
 Infiltration Estimation
 The Green-Ampt eqn. is derived based on Darcy’s equation.:

 The Green Ampt eqn. for cumulative infiltration is:

 The Green Ampt eqn. for infiltration rate is:

 Infiltration Estimation
 Philip Infiltration Model:
1
f= 𝑠 𝑡 −1/2 + 𝐾
2 𝑖
where, si is infiltration sorptivity (cm×hr -0.5), K is
hydraulic conductivity which is considered equal to the
Ks and t is time.

The sorptivity expresses the tendency of a material to

absorb and transmit water and other liquids by
capillarity. It is widely used in characterizing soils and
porous construction materials such as brick, stone and
concrete.
 Infiltration Estimation
 Holton’s Empirical Infiltration Eqn.:
f = 𝐺𝐼 𝐴 (𝑆𝑎)1.4 + 𝑓𝑐
where, f is in inches per hour, GI is a crop growth
index that ranges from 0.1 to 1.0, A - macropores
associated with plant roots, fc - steady state
infiltration rate, Sa - available storage in the surface
layers.
 Infiltration Estimation
 Infiltration Indices: estimation of runoff volume from large
areas can be made by the use of infiltration indices.
 This method assumed an average value of infiltration during a
storm, in actual practise although it is varied with time. This is
also due to different states of wetness of the soil after the
commencement of the rainfall.
 Three types of infiltration indices:
 Ф-index
 W-index
 fave-index
 Infiltration Estimation
Ф - index:
o Defined as that the rate of rainfall above which the rainfall volume
equals the runoff volume. Hence, provided i > Ф throughout the
storm, it is accounted as:

o A hyetograph is shown in below figure, the φ-index divides the

rainfall into net rain and storm loss.

Infiltration loss by φ-index

 Infiltration Estimation
W-index:
o Is the average infiltration rate during the time rainfall intensity
exceeds the infiltration capacity rate, i.e.,

where P = total rainfall; Q = surface runoff; S = effective surface

retention; tR = duration of storm during which i > fp; Fp = total
infiltration.
o W-index equals to the Ф-index minus the average rate of retention
by interception and depression storage, i.e., W< Ф.
o The runoff coefficient C can also be estimated:

fave-index:
o An average infiltration loss is assumed throughout the storm, for the
period i > f.