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Semicond
Semicond
Semiconductors
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Diamond
In the diamond structure, the
carbon atoms are arranged on an
fcc-type lattice with a total of 16
electrons per primitive cell.
ρ = 1018 -m
Graphite
ρ = 9 -m
Silicon
Silicon has the diamond structure.
There are 14 electrons per primitive
cell.
Gap is only 1.12 eV, however.
} 1.12 eV
Effective Mass Revisited
An electron moving in the solid under the
influence of the crystal potential is subjected
to an electric field.
We expect an external field to accelerate the
electron, increasing E and k and change the
electron’s state.
Effective Mass Revisited
eV
d dV dV dx
and e e
dt dt dx dt
1 d
d dk dV vg
e vg dk
dk dt dx
dk dV
v g e vg
dt dx
d dV d
k e k eE
dt dx dt
Effective Mass Revisited
dv gd 1 d 1 d d dk
a
dt dt dk dk dk dt
1 d 2 dk 1 d 2 d
2 k
2 2
dk dt dk dt
eE = F
1
me
Effective Mass Revisited
1
1 d 2
me 2
dk 2
This relates the curvature of the band to the “effective
mass.”
One can show that a free electron “band” gives an
effective mass equal to the rest mass of an electron.
Electrons in a crystal are accelerated in response to an
external force just as though they were free electrons with
effective mass me.
Usually , me < m0.
Effective Mass Revisited
Effective Mass Revisited
Material Electron Effective Mass Hole Effective Mass
Group IV
Si (4.2 K) 1.08 0.56
Ge 0.555 0.37
Groups III-IV
GaAs 0.067 0.45
InSb 0.013 0.60
Groups II-VI
ZnO 0.,19 1.21
ZnSe 0.17 1.44
v
p �[ 1 f ( ) ] D( ) d
�
A band is shown for a one-dimensional crystal. The
square represents an initially empty state in an otherwise
filled band. When an electric field is applied, the states
represented by arrows successsively become empty as
electrons make transitions.
The band is completely filled except for a state marked by
a square. Except for the electron represented as a circle,
each electron can be paired with another, so the sum of
their crystal momentum vanishes. The total crystal
momentum for the band and the crystal momentum of the
hole are both ħk.
The empty state and the unpaired electron for two times
are shown when an electric field is applied. The change
in momentum is in the direction of the field.
Conduction Band Carrier Concentration
�
n � f ( ) D( ) d
0
3/ 2
dN ( ) 1 �2me �
D( ) 2� 3 �
dE 2p �h �
For >> F, the Boltzmann distribution approximates the F-D
distribution:
1 ( F ) / k BT
f ( ) e
1 e ( F ) / k BT
e ( c ) / k BT e ( c F ) / k BT
which is valid for the tail end of the distribution.
Conduction Band Carrier Concentration
�
( c F ) / k B T ( c ) / k B T
ne �D( ) e
0
d
3/ 2
me k BT
N C 2 2
2p
( F c ) / k B T
n NC e
Conduction Band
Carrier Concentration
Valence Band Carrier Concentration
The hole distribution is related to the electron distribution,
since a hole is the absence of an electron.
1 1
f h 1 f e 1 ( ) / k T ( ) / k T
e F B 1 e F B 1
e ( F ) / k BT (as long as F k BT )
The holes near the top of the valence band behave like
particles with effective mass mh; and the density of states is
3/ 2
1 �2mh �
D( ) 2 � 2 � v
2p �h �
3/ 2
v �mh k BT � ( v F ) / kBT
p �[ 1 f ( ) ] D( ) d 2 � 2 � e
�
�2p h �
Equilibrium Relation
Multiply n and p together:
np 4
k BT
3
(
m m 3/2
) e ( g ) / k BT
2 h e
2p
The product is constant at a given temperature.
It is also independent of any impurity concentration at a
given temperature. This is because any impurity that adds
electrons, necessarily fills holes.
This is important in practice, since we could reduce the
total carrier concentration n + p in an impure crystal via the
controlled introduction of suitable impurities – such
reduction is called compensation.
Intrinsic Semiconductors
n p ni
N c e ( F c ) / k BT N v e ( v F ) / k BT
Nc
k BT ln c F F v
Nv c
c v 1 Nc F
F k BT ln
2 2 Nv v
Extrinsic Semiconductors
Extrinsic semiconductors: we can add impurities
to make a material semiconducting (or to change
the properties of the gap).
There are 2 types of extrinsic semiconductors:
p-type and n-type
These are materials which have mostly hole
carriers (p) or electron carriers (n).
These give you ways of modifying the band gap
energies (important for electronics, detectors, etc).
Extrinsic Semiconductors: n type
• Add a small amount of phosporus (P:
3s23p3) to Silicon (Si: 3s23p2)
(generally, a group V element to a
group IV host) P replaces a Si atom
and it donates an electron to the
conduction band (P is called the donor
atom). The periodic potential is
disrupted and we get a localized energy
level, D.
• This is an n-type semiconductor – more electrons around
that can be mobile; and the Fermi energy is closer to the
conduction band.
Extrinsic Semiconductors: n type
Phosphorus provides an extra electron.
C – D = 45 meV
So, its easy for the donor electrons to enter
the conduction band at room temperature.
This means that at room temperature n ND.
This is called complete ionization (only true if ni
<< ND). Therefore, by doping Si crystal with
phosphorus, we increase the free electron
concentration.
At low temperature, these extra electrons get
trapped at the donor sites (no longer very mobile)
- the dopant is frozen out.
Extrinsic Semiconductors: p type
Next suppose Si atom is replaced with Boron (B: 2s22p) to
Silicon (Si: 3s23p2). Again, we have a perturbed lattice and
a localized E-level created.
Boron is missing an electron and accepts an
electron from valence band, creating a hole.
Therefore doping with B increases hole
concentration. We call this p-type doping,
the electron concentration n is reduced.
F moves closer to V. c
F
A
v
Extrinsic Semiconductors
Extrinsic Semiconductors
Boron in Silicon
Mass Action Law
• Valid for both intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors.