Sources Of Carbohydrates &

Enzymatic Conversion And Mobilization

Of Glucose

Debanjana chakraborty
2nd semester msc
biotechnology
Sources of Carbohydrates

Carbohydrate maintains the functional activity of the cells

, apart from supplying the energy needed for the functioning of the
human body. It is one of the major constituents of a healthy and
balanced diet. Carbohydrate is either dominant nutrient in the food
stuffs, or found in minimal quantity. It is vital to know the amount of
carbohydrate present in the food, especially when you are following
a particular diet plan.
High Carbohydrate
Carbohydrate Content (in
Food grams)
Jowar 72.6
Ragi 72.0
Rice (raw) 78.2
Whole Wheat 69.4
Flour
Whole Bengal 60.9
Gram
Green Gram 59.9
Kidney Beans 60.6
Arrow Root 83.1
Flour
Apricot (dry) 73.4
Dry Dates 75.8
Honey 79.5
Dietary Carbohydrates

Fructose
Glucose

monosaccharides:
monosaccharides:
glucose,
glucose,fructose
fructoseand
andgalactose
galactose ininfruits
fruitsand
andhoney
honey&&
obtained
obtainedbybyhydrolysis
hydrolysisofof oligo-
oligo-&&polysacs.
polysacs.
Disaccharides:

sucrose, lactose, maltose (by hydrolysis of

starch).
Polysaccharides:

Starch

starch (in potatoes, rice, corn and wheat) Cellulose (in cell
wall of plants) not digested by humans due to absence of
cellulase
Enzymatic conversion and mobilization
of glucose means the breakdown
of glucose into substrates with
the help of enzymes.
Enzymatic conversion and mobilization of glucose includes the
Enzymatic conversion and mobilization of glucose includes the
following ways-
following ways-
 Glycolysis
 Glycolysis
 Krebs cycle
 Krebs cycle
 Hexose Monophosphate Pathway (HMP shunt)
 Pentose
Hexose Monophosphate
Phosphate Pathway Pathway (HMP shunt)
Pentose
Pentose Phosphate
ShuntSite: Pathwayof cells e.g. liver, adipose tissue,
cytoplasm
Pentose ShuntSite:
adrenals, cytoplasm
gonads, RBCs of cells e.g. liver, adipose tissue,
and retina.
adrenals, gonads, RBCs and retina.
Steps:
Steps:dehydrogenase
Glucose-6-P
G-6-PGlucose-6-P dehydrogenase R-5-P
G-6-P
NADP+ R-5-P
CO2 NADPH+H+
NADP+ CO2 NADPH+H+

 Uronic Acid Pathway (This pathway converts glucose to glucuronic acid.)

 Uronic Acid Pathway (This pathway converts glucose to glucuronic acid.)
 Glycogenesis: synthesis of glycogen from glucose.
 Glycogenesis: synthesis of glycogen from glucose.
 Glycogenolysis: breakdown of glycogen to glucose-1-phosphate.
 Glycogenolysis: breakdown of glycogen to glucose-1-phosphate.
 Gluconeogenesis: synthesis of glucose or glycogen from non-CHO precursors.
 Gluconeogenesis: synthesis of glucose or glycogen from non-CHO precursors.
GLYCOLYSIS
GLYCOLYSIS
Series
Seriesofofbiochemical
biochemicalreactions
reactionsby
bywhich
which
glucose is converted to:
glucose is converted to:
-Pyruvate
-Pyruvate(in
(inaerobic
aerobicconditions)or
conditions)or
-Lactate
-Lactate(in
(inanaerobic
anaerobicconditions).
conditions).
Site:
Site:cytosol
cytosolofofevery
everycell.
cell.
Physiologically
Physiologicallyititoccurs
occursin:in:
-muscles
-musclesduring
duringexercise
exercise(lack
(lackofofoxygen)
oxygen)
-RBCs
-RBCs(no
(nomitochondria).
mitochondria).
STEPS:

Phase one: 1 molecule of glucose (C6) is converted to 2

molecules of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (C3)
as follows:
Glucose (C6) 2 ATP Glyceraldehyde 3 P (C3)
PHASE TWO: IN THIS PHASE THE 2
MOLECULES OF GLYCERALDEHYDE 3-P ARE
CONVERTED TO 2 MOLECULES OF PYRUVATE
(AEROBIC)
OR LACTATE (ANAEROBIC):
4 ATP
2 Glyceraldehyde-3 P (C3) 2 Pyruvic Acid (C3)

2 NADH + 2 H+

2 NAD+

2 Lactic Acid
 Overall, glycolysis
summarized

Glucose 2 Pyruvic Acid + 2 net

ATP
+4 hydrogens (2 NADH2)

2 Lactic Acid + 2 net ATP

activation

cleavage
oxidation
 Regulation
Regulationofof
Glycolysis:
Glycolysis:
It
Itcan
canbe
benoted
notedthat
thatall
allreactions
reactionsof
ofglycolysis
glycolysis
are
arereversible
reversibleexcept
exceptthose
thosecatalyzed
catalyzedby:
by:
• Glucokinase (or hexokinase) (GK)
• Glucokinase (or hexokinase) (GK)
• Phosphofructokinase (PFK)
• Phosphofructokinase (PFK)
• Pyruvate kinase (PK)
• Pyruvate kinase (PK)
Regulation
Regulationaccording
accordingto
toenergy
energy
requirements of cell:
requirements of cell:
Each cell regulates glycolysis
according to the rate of
utilization of ATP:
i) High levels of AMP
(indicating high ATP utilization):
+++ PFK (i.e. activates glycolysis).
ii)High levels of ATP
(indicating little utilization of ATP):
- - -PFK and PK (i.e. inhibits
glycolysis).
 Importance
ImportanceofofGlycolysis:
Glycolysis:

1. Glycolysis provides mitochondria with pyruvic a

Glycolysis provides
1.oxaloacetate which is mitochondria
the primer with pyruvic
of the Krebs'a
oxaloacetate which is the primer of the Krebs'
cycle.
cycle.
2. Glycolysis provides dihydroxyacetone P glycerol 3-P
2.that
Glycolysis provides
is important fordihydroxyacetone P glycerol 3-P
lipogenesis (TAG synthesis)
that is important for lipogenesis (TAG synthesis)
3. Energy production:
3. Energy production:
Glycolysis liberates only a small part of energy from
Glycolysis liberates only a small part of energy from
glucose, however:
glucose, however:
a. Important during severe muscular exercise, where
a.oxygen
Important during
supply severe
is often musculartoexercise,
insufficient meet thewhere
oxygen supply
demands is often
of aerobic insufficient to meet the
metabolism.
demands of aerobic metabolism.
b. Provides all energy required by the R.B.Cs. (due to
b.lack
Provides all energy required by the R.B.Cs. (due to
of mitochondria).
lack of mitochondria).
 • Energy yield of glycolysis

In
Inabsence
absenceof ofoxygen:
oxygen:
22ATP
ATPareareconsumed
consumedfor forconversion
conversionof
ofglucose
glucose
to
toFructose
Fructose1,61,6P.P.
22ATP
ATPareareproduced
producedduring
duringconversion
conversionof
of
glyceraldehydes
glyceraldehydes3-P 3-Pto
topyruvate.
pyruvate.
Since 1 glucose molecule gives 2 molecules
Since 1 glucose molecule gives 2 molecules of of
GG3-P, then total number of ATP produced
3-P, then total number of ATP produced is 4.is 4.
net gain of ATP in absence of oxygen is: 4-2=2
net gain of ATP in absence of oxygen is: 4-2=2
ATP.
ATP.