Step Rate Testing

Steve McLaughlin
President
Cardinal Surveys Company
Cardinal Surveys Company 2009

You do not want to frac your injectors
Old technology, but must be done right
Scant literature, but agrees on fundamentals
Most costly waterflood mistake: Unintentional
Fracturing and direct channels
Most overlooked, underutilized technology
Rapid, premature breakthrough still plagues
new floods today
State and Federal regulations dictate, provide
some guidance
Goal:
Reliable estimate of FPP (Formation Parting Pressure)
Injection above FPP:
Premature breakthrough of injected fluids
Poor sweep efficiency
Reduced recovery
Loss of costly injection fluids.
Injection far below FPP:
Injection volumes much lower than the allowable maximum
Reduced rate of oil recover.

“A reliable estimate of the formation parting or
fracture extension pressure is important for
efficient operation of water floods and tertiary
recovery projects.”
• - Pramod Singh, SPE, and Ram G. Agarwal, SPE,
Amoco Production Co. SPE 18141, 1990.

“Rapid water breakthrough in production wells as a direct result
of exceeding a certain critical injection pressure in nearby
injection wells was observed as early as 1945.(1) This critical
injection pressure is called the formation or fracture parting
pressure (FPP). The FPP is equivalent to the ‘fracture
extension/propagation pressure’ in the hydraulic fracturing
literature.(2) Several studies (3-5) recently demonstrated that a
fracture will propagate if injection is above the FPP and the
injection/withdrawal ratio is greater than one. In addition to
this uncontrolled fracture extension, injection above the FPP
may also cause fracturing out of pay. These factors may lead to
premature breakthrough of injected fluids, poor sweep
efficiency, reduced recovery, and loss of costly injection fluids. “
Cont.
“On the other hand, injection far below the FPP may result in
injection volumes much lower than the allowable maximum and
a reduced rate of oil recover. A reliable estimate of the FPP is
therefore critical in conducting secondary and tertiary recovery
projects.(6)”
• - Pramod Singh, SPE, and Ram G. Agarwal, SPE, Amoco Production Co. SPE
18141, 1990.

What is a “Step Rate Test (SRT)?”
A series of constant-rate injections (“Steps”)
increasing from low to high, designed to determine
the Formation Parting Pressure (FPP).
Formation Parting Pressure is the pressure which
will initiate formation fracture.
Fracture is undesirable when it leads to by-passing
productive pay and channeling directly to adjacent
producers.

FPP vs. closure pressure:
Closure pressure is less than the Formation Parting
Pressure.
Closure pressure can be determined by in-situ
stress testing methods.
Rules of Thumb usually limit injection pressure to
about 80% of FPP which should also be below
closure pressure.

Eaton’s Method, 1969
( Pob  Pr)e
FG   Pr
(1  e)
FG = Fracture Gradient
Pob = Overburden Gradient
Pr = Reservoir Pressure Gradient
E = Poisson’s Ratio

Eaton’s Method – West Texas Example
Pob = 1 PSI/ft (overburden gradient)

Pr = 0.433 PSI/ft (fresh water reservoir gradient)
E = 0.25 (Poisson’s ratio)
FG = 0.622 PSI/ft
4,500’ well = 2,799 PSI FPP

Note: Eaton’s Method from example using 80%
rule-of-thumb equals 0.5 psi/ft gradient:
0.622 X 0.80 = 0.5 psi/ft
This is the Texas Railroad Commission default

permitted value.

Measuring pressure – Down Hole or Surface?
Theoretically, pressure can be measured at the
surface, and corrected for hydrostatic and frictional
factors.
Practically, only down-hole (near formation face)
placed measurements yield good SRT data.
Real-time monitoring required to insure quality of
the SRT, and to insure FPP has been reached.

Step Rate Test
900
800
700
600
500
Rate, BPD
400
300
200
Real – Time Injection Rate Steps
100
0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300
Time, Minutes

Step Rate Test
3000
2500
2000
Pressure, PSI
1500
1000
500
Real – Time Bottom Hole Pressures

0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300
Time, Minutes

Step Rate Test
3000
2500
2000
Pressure, PSI
1500
1000
Injection Rates vs. BHP

500
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
Rate, BPD
Step Rate Test
3000
2500
2000
Pressure, PSI
1500
Formation Parting
1000
Pressure (FPP)
500
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Rate, BPD
psi/ft vs. Depth
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
Gradient, PSI/FT
0.8
0.6
Texas: 0.5
0.4
New Mexico: 0.2

0.2
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000
PSI Tool Depth

New Mexico
OCD (Oil Conservation Division)
UNDERGROUND INJECTION CONTROL

PROGRAM MANUAL
February 26, 2004

New Mexico OCD rules:
Injection Pressure:
• The initial permitted injection pressure is limited to
0.2 psi/ft.
• Wells may be permitted at a higher initial injection
pressure at the time of application if adequate
step-rate test information is provided to the
Division

New Mexico OCD rules:
Pressure Increases (over 0.2 PSI/ft):
• The Division may authorize an increase in injection
pressure upon a proper showing by the operator
that such higher pressure will not fracture the
formation and will not result in migration of
injected fluids from the authorized injection zone.
Such proper showing shall consist at least of a valid
step-rate test run in a manner acceptable to the
Division

Texas RRC Statewide Rule 46
To ammend Injection Pressure above 0.5 PSI/ft,

a Step Rate Test is required.

Step Rate Test Guidelines – Texas RRC
Must demonstrate that formation fracturing will
not occur at the proposed injection pressure.
SRT used to demonstrate.
Measure both surface and BHP.
The test well should be shut in long enough so
that the bottom-hole pressure is near the shut-
in formation pressure (No less than 48 hours.).

The well may need to be backflowed if the shut-
in pressure is above the expected fracture
pressure of 0.5 psi/ft. of depth.
Suggested rates for the test are 5, 10, 20, 40, 60,
80, and 100% of the proposed maximum daily
injection volume and corresponding pressures.
The first rate should be the formation matrix
rate (the rate at which the formation begins to
accept fluid).
At least two rates must be below the expected
fracture pressure of 0.5 psi/ft. of depth.
Each rate must be allowed to stabilize before
proceeding to the next higher rate. (60 min for
formation permeability < 10 millidarcies, and 30
min for perm > 10 millidarcies.)

EACH STEP SHOULD LAST EXACTLY AS LONG AS
THE PRECEDING STEP.
Once the fracture pressure is reached,
continuing the test by stepping downward will
refine the fracture pressure and provide quality
control for the test.
http://www.rrc.state.tx.us/forms/publications/HTML/fsrt.php

http://www.epa.gov/R5water/uic/r5guid/r5_07.htm
United States Evironmental Projection Agency (EPA)

Underground Injection Control regulations
promulgated in response to requirements of the Safe
Drinking Water Act include 40 CFR 146.13(a) for non-
hazardous waste wells and 146.67(a) for hazardous
waste wells, which state that:
Except during stimulation, the owner or operator shall
assure that injection pressure at the wellhead does not
exceed a maximum which shall be calculated so as to
assure that the pressure in the injection zone during
injection does not initiate new fractures or propagate
existing fractures in the injection zone.
United States Evironmental Projection Agency (EPA)
Recommends Fracture Closure Pressure as
maximum injection pressure.
Prefers in-situ stress testing to SRT. (In-situ
stress testing is where fluid is injected above the
break-down pressure [fracture pressure], and
then pressures are monitored after fluid
injection is stopped to determine closure
pressure and pore pressure. The pumping cycle
is often repeated multiple times.)
http://www.epa.gov/region8/water/uic/INFO-StepRateTest.pdf
EPA STEP-RATE TEST PROCEDURE:

1) The well should be shut in long enough prior to testing
such that the bottom hole pressures approximate shut-in
formation pressures. If the shut-in well flows to the surface,
the wellhead injection string should be equipped with a
gauge and the static surface pressure read and recorded.
2) A series of successively higher injection rates are
determined using guidelines below, and the elapsed time
and pressure values are read and recorded for each rate and
time step. Each rate step should last exactly as long as the
preceding rate. If stabilized pressure values are not
obtained within the rate steps suggested below, the test
results may be considered as inconclusive.

Formation Permeability (md) Total time per rate-step (min)
≤ 5 md 60 min
≥ 10 md 30 min
3) Suggested injection rates (percent of maximum
anticipated injection rate):
5% , 10%, 20%, 40%, 60%, 80%, 100%
4) Injection rates should be controlled with a constant flow
regulator that has been tested prior to use. A throttling
device is not considered sufficient.
5) Flow rates should be measured with a calibrated turbine
flowmeter.

6) Record injection rates using a chart recorder or a strip
chart.
7) Measure pressures with a down hole pressure bomb. If a
surface gauge is used, the test pressures must be corrected
for the estimated friction loss at each particular flow rate.
8) Measure and record injection pressures with a gauge or
recorder (for immediate test results). Record each time step
and corresponding pressure.


9) A plot of injection rates and the corresponding stabilized
pressure values should be graphically represented as a
constant slope straight line to a point at which the
formation fracture, or “breakdown”, pressure is exceeded.
The slope of this subsequent straight line should be less
than that of the before-fracture straight line (see example).


10) If the formation fracture pressure has definitively been
exceeded, as evidenced by at least two injection rate-
pressure combinations greater than the breakdown
pressure, the injection pump can be stopped, and the line
valve closed and pressure allowed to bleed-off into the
injection zone. There will occur a significant instantaneous
pressure drop (Instantaneous Shut-in Pressure or ISIP), after
which the pressure values will level out. This ISIP value
must be read and recorded. The ISIP obtained in this
manner may be considered to be the minimum pressure
required to hold open a fracture in this formation at this
well. Cardinal Surveys Company 2009

11) Once the ISIP is obtained, the SRT is concluded.
12) In the event that the breakdown pressure was not
obtained at the maximum test injection pressure utilized,
the test results may indicate that the formation is accepting
fluids without fracturing.

EPA SRT Example

Other method:
2 Step Method
SPE 18,141 – Singh and Agarwal, 1989.
U.S. Patent No. 4,793,413 – Singh, Agarwal and
Miller, 1988.
• Uses continuous recording of rate and pressure data.

• Step one below FPP, Step two above FPP.
• Delta time vs Delta pressure plots determine FPP.

Examples Follow

Step Rate Testing

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Steve McLaughlin

Cardinal Surveys Company 2009

Cardinal Surveys Company 2009

Cardinal Surveys Company 2009

Cardinal Surveys Company 2009

Cardinal Surveys Company 2009

Cardinal Surveys Company 2009

Cardinal Surveys Company 2009

Pob = 1 PSI/ft (overburden gradient)

4,500’ well = 2,799 PSI FPP

0.622 X 0.80 = 0.5 psi/ft

This is the Texas Railroad Commission default

Cardinal Surveys Company 2009

Cardinal Surveys Company 2009

Cardinal Surveys Company 2009

Real – Time Bottom Hole Pressures

Cardinal Surveys Company 2009

Injection Rates vs. BHP

New Mexico: 0.2

Cardinal Surveys Company 2009

OCD (Oil Conservation Division)

UNDERGROUND INJECTION CONTROL

Cardinal Surveys Company 2009

Cardinal Surveys Company 2009

Cardinal Surveys Company 2009

To ammend Injection Pressure above 0.5 PSI/ft,

Cardinal Surveys Company 2009

Cardinal Surveys Company 2009

Cardinal Surveys Company 2009

Cardinal Surveys Company 2009

United States Evironmental Projection Agency (EPA)

EPA STEP-RATE TEST PROCEDURE:

EPA STEP-RATE TEST PROCEDURE:

EPA STEP-RATE TEST PROCEDURE:

Cardinal Surveys Company 2009

EPA STEP-RATE TEST PROCEDURE:

Cardinal Surveys Company 2009

EPA STEP-RATE TEST PROCEDURE:

EPA STEP-RATE TEST PROCEDURE:

Cardinal Surveys Company 2009

Cardinal Surveys Company 2009

• Uses continuous recording of rate and pressure data.

Cardinal Surveys Company 2009

Cardinal Surveys Company 2009

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