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Theory, characteristics,
and implementations
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The role of antennas
Antennas serve four primary functions
• Spatial filter
directionally-dependent sensitivity
• Polarization filter
polarization-dependent sensitivity
• Impedance transformer
transition between free space and transmission line
• Propagation mode adapter
from free-space fields to guided waves
(e.g., transmission line, waveguide)
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Spatial filter
Antennas have the property of being more
sensitive in one direction than in another which
provides the ability to spatially filter signals from its
environment.
z z
x x
y y
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Propagation mode adapter
In free space the waves spherically expand
following Huygens principle:
each point of an advancing
wave front is in fact the
center of a fresh disturbance
and the source of a new train of waves.
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Propagation mode adapter
During both transmission and receive operations
the antenna must provide the transition between
these two propagation modes.
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Antenna types
Antennas come in a wide variety of sizes and shapes
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Theory
In wire-type antennas the radiation characteristics
are determined by the current distribution which
produces the local magnetic field.
Yagi-Uda antenna
Helical antenna
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Theory – wire antenna example
Some simplifying approximations can be made to take advantage the far-field conditions.
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Theory – wire antenna example
Once Eq and Ef are known, the radiation characteristics can be determined.
Defining the directional function f (q, f) from
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Theory – aperture antennas
In aperture-type antennas the radiation
characteristics are determined by the field distribution
across the aperture.
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Theory – aperture antenna example
The far-field radiation pattern can be found from the Fourier
transform of the near-field pattern.
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Characteristics
Radiation pattern
Radiation pattern – variation of the field intensity of an antenna as an
angular function with respect to the axis
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Characteristics
Radiation pattern
Spherical coordinate system
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Characteristics
Radiation pattern
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Characteristics
Radiation pattern
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Characteristics
Radiation pattern
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Characteristics
Radiation pattern
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Characteristics
Radiation pattern
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Characteristics
Beamwidth and beam solid angle
The beam or pattern solid angle, p [steradians or sr] is defined as
p Fn q, f d
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where d is the elemental solid angle given by d sin q dq df
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Characteristics
Directivity, gain, effective area
Directivity – the ratio of the radiation intensity in a given direction from the
antenna to the radiation intensity averaged over all directions.
[unitless]
and or
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Characteristics
Directivity, gain, effective area
Gain – ratio of the power at the input of a loss-free isotropic antenna to the
power supplied to the input of the given antenna to produce, in a given
direction, the same field strength at the same distance
Of the total power Pt supplied to the antenna, a part Po is radiated out into space
and the remainder Pl is dissipated as heat in the antenna structure. The
radiation efficiency l is defined as the ratio of Po to Pt
Po
l
Pt
Therefore gain, G, is related to directivity, D, as
Gq , f l Dq , f
Go l Do
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Characteristics
Directivity, gain, effective area
Effective area – the functional equivalent area from which an antenna
directed toward the source of the received signal gathers or absorbs the
energy of an incident electromagnetic wave
For a rectangular aperture with dimensions lx and ly in the x- and y-axes, and
an aperture efficiency a = 1, we get
xz l x [rad] yz l y [rad]
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Characteristics
Directivity, gain, effective area
Therefore the maximum gain and the effective area can be used
interchangeably by assuming a value for the radiation efficiency (e.g., l = 1)
4
G0 l Aeff
2
4 4
G0 Aeff
2
xz y z
2
Aeff G0
4
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Characteristics
Bandwidth
The antenna’s bandwidth is the range of operating
frequencies over which the antenna meets the operational
requirements, including:
– Spatial properties (radiation characteristics)
– Polarization properties
– Impedance properties
– Propagation mode properties
Most antenna technologies can support operation over a
frequency range that is 5 to 10% of the central frequency
(e.g., 100 MHz bandwidth at 2 GHz)
To achieve wideband operation requires specialized
antenna technologies
(e.g., Vivaldi, bowtie, spiral)
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Friis’ transmission formula
At a fixed distance R from the transmitting antenna, the
power intercepted by the receiving antenna with effective
aperture Ar is
Pt
Pi S r Ar Gt Ar
4 R 2
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Friis’ transmission formula
If the radiation efficiency of the receiving antenna is r,
then the power received at the receiving antenna’s output
terminals is
Pt
Pr r Pi Gt r Ar
4 R 2
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Friis’ transmission formula
as Friis’ transmission formula can be rewritten to explicitly
represent the free-space transmission loss, LFS
4 R
2
LFS
which represents the propagation loss experienced in
transmission between two lossless isotropic antennas.
With this definition, the Friis formula becomes
Pr Gt Gr
Pt LFS
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Friis’ transmission formula
Finally, a general form of the Friis’ transmission formula
can be written that does not assume the antennas are
oriented to achieve maximum power transfer
2
Pr
Gt q t , ft Gr q r , fr
Pt 4 R
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Implementation
Dipole, monopole, and ground plane
For a center-fed, half-wave dipole oriented parallel to the z axis
cos cos q
j 60 I 0 2 e jk r
Eq (V/m)
r sin q
2
cos cos q
15 I 02 2
Sr (W/m2)
r2 sin q
cos cos q
2
Fn q, f Fn q 2
Tuned half-wave
sin 2 q dipole antenna
D0 1.64 2.15 dB
q 78
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Dipole antennas
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Dipole antennas
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Monopole antenna
q q
Ground
plane
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Ground plane
A ground plane will produce an image of nearby currents. The image
will have a phase shift of 180° with respect to the original current.
Therefore as the current element is placed close to the surface, the
induced image current will effectively cancel the radiating fields from
the current.
The ground plane may be any conducting surface including a metal
sheet, a water surface, or the ground (soil, pavement, rock).
Horizontal current
element
Conducting surface
(ground plane)
Current element
image
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Implementation
Horn antennas
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Implementation
Horn antennas
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Implementation
Parabolic reflector antennas
Circular aperture with uniform illumination. Aperture radius = a.
Ap = a 2
E0 Ap J 2 a q
E q j e jk r 2 1 where q sin q
r 2a q
J 2 a q
2
S r q S 0 2 1 where S 0 S r 0
E02 Ap2
2aq 2 2 r 2
1 2
2a
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Implementation
Antenna arrays
Antenna array composed of several similar radiating
elements (e.g., dipoles or horns).
Element spacing and the relative amplitudes and phases
of the element excitation determine the array’s radiative
properties.
Two-dimensional array of
microstrip patch antennas
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Implementation
Antenna arrays
The far-field radiation characteristics Sr(q, f) of an N-element array
composed of identical radiating elements can be expressed as a product of
two functions:
i 0
The elemental pattern, Se(q, f), depends on the range-independent far-field
radiation pattern of the individual element. (Element-to-element coupling is
ignored here.)
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Implementation
Antenna arrays
In the array factor, Ai is the feeding coefficient representing the
complex excitation of each individual element in terms of the
amplitude, ai, and the phase factor, i, as
j i
Ai ai e
and ri is the range to the distant observation point.
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Implementation
Antenna arrays
For a linear array with equal spacing d between adjacent
elements, which approximates to
ri R i d cos q
For this case, the array factor becomes
2
N 1
Fa q, f Fa q i e
a e j i j i k d cos q
i 0
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Implementation
Antenna arrays
By adjusting the amplitude and phase of each
elements excitation, the beam characteristics can
be modified.
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Implementation
Antenna arrays
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Implementation
Antenna arrays
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Implementation
Example: 2-element array
Isotropic radiators
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Implementation
Example: 2-element array
Isotropic radiators
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Implementation
Example: 2-element array
Half-wave dipole radiators
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Implementation
Example: 2-element array
Half-wave dipole radiators
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Implementation
Example: 6-element array
Half-wave dipole radiators
grating lobes
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Antenna arrays
Beamwidth and gain
An 2-D planar array with uniform spacing, N x M elements
in the two dimensions with inter-element spacing of /2
provides a broadside array gain of approximately
G array N M G element , for N, M 5
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Terminology
Antenna – structure or device used to collect or radiate electromagnetic waves
Array – assembly of antenna elements with dimensions, spacing, and illumination sequency such that the
fields of the individual elements combine to produce a maximum intensity in a particular direction and
minimum intensities in other directions
Beamwidth – the angle between the half-power (3-dB) points of the main lobe, when referenced to the peak
effective radiated power of the main lobe
Directivity – the ratio of the radiation intensity in a given direction from the antenna to the radiation intensity
averaged over all directions
Effective area – the functional equivalent area from which an antenna directed toward the source of the
received signal gathers or absorbs the energy of an incident electromagnetic wave
Efficiency – ratio of the total radiated power to the total input power
Far field – region where wavefront is considered planar
Gain – ratio of the power at the input of a loss-free isotropic antenna to the power supplied to the input of the
given antenna to produce, in a given direction, the same field strength at the same distance
Isotropic – radiates equally in all directions
Main lobe – the lobe containing the maximum power
Null – a zone in which the effective radiated power is at a minimum relative to the maximum effective
radiation power of the main lobe
Radiation pattern – variation of the field intensity of an antenna as an angular function with respect to the
axis
Radiation resistance – resistance that, if inserted in place of the antenna, would consume that same amount
of power that is radiated by the antenna
Side lobe – a lobe in any direction other than the main lobe
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