c
 








? 
?
‡ What constitutes a
controller will vary from
application to application.
‡ It may be no more than an amplifier or a switch.
‡ It may be a complex system that may include
computers and other types of processors such as
data acquisition and signal processors.
‡ Most of the time, it is a microprocessors.
‡ We shall therefore focus the discussion here on
microprocessors.
? 
?
‡ Focus on microprocessors as general purpose,
flexible and reconfigurable controllers and the
ways sensors and actuator relate to these.
‡ Microprocessors are often called microcontrollers
‡ What is a microprocessor? What is the different
between a microprocessor and a computer or a
microcomputer and how a distinguishing set of
features is arrived at are all difficult and subjective
issues. What is a microprocessor to one is a full
fledged computer to another
  ?   
‡ A microprocessor is a stand alone, self contained
single chip microcomputer.
‡ It must have as a minimum:
± a central processing unit (CPU)
± nonvolatile and program memory
± input and output capabilities.
‡ A structure that has these can be programmed in
some convenient programming language
‡ can interact with the outside world through the
input/output ports.
  ?   
‡ Other important requirements:
‡ must be relatively simple
‡ reasonably small
‡ necessarily limited in most of its features  memory,
processing power and speed, addressing range and, of
course in number of I/O devices it can interact with.
‡ The designer must have access to all features of the
microprocessor  bus, memory, registers, all I/O ports,
‡ c 

, Microprocessors are components with
flexible features that the engineer can configure
and program to perform task or a series of tasks.
  ?   
‡ Two limits on the tasks microprocessors can
perform:
‡ The limitations of the microprocessor itself
‡ The imagination (or capabilities) of the
designer.
 ? ?   
‡ We will narrow down to 8 bit microprocessors
± these are the most common in sensor/actuator systems
± they are simple and representative of all microprocessor
‡ 16 and 32 bit microprocessors exist
‡ There are a number of architectures being used.
‡ We will emphasize the Harvard architecture
because of its simplicity, flexibility and
popularity.
 
 ?
‡ There are about two dozen manufacturers of
microprocessors
‡ All based on a few architectures.
‡ We shall only briefly describe here one
architecture  the Harvard architecture
‡ used in many microprocessors
‡ Simple and efficient
‡ The choice in smaller microprocessor
‡ Example: Microchip and Atmel microprocessors
 
 ?
‡ Main features:
‡ Separate busses for program memory and operand
memory.
‡ Pipelined architecture
‡ Allows fetching data while another operation
executes.
‡ Each cycle consists of fetching the (n+1)th
instruction while executing the nth
‡ Integer arithmetic
‡ Limited instruction set
 
 ?
‡ Bus widths vary depending on manufacturer and
on the microprocessor size.
‡ Example: = , bus architecture for a
PIC18F452 from Microchip.
‡ The instruction is 16bit
‡ Program address is 15bit wide.
‡ Data is 8bits and
‡ Operand address is 12 bits.
‡ These vary from device to device.
[
 ?
 
 ?
‡ Example, the smallest microprocessors
available (PIC10FXX) are 6 pin devices
‡ Summarized in  .
‡ The architecture for this device is shown in
= .
‡ Here the program address bus is only 9 bits
while the instruction buss is 12 bits.
Ä  ?   
Ä  ?   
 
 ?
‡ Example: one of the largest, is the
PIC18FXX20
‡ Has an address bus 21 bits wide.
‡ The processor and its variants are shown in
 
‡ Its architecture in = .
 
 ?
‡ Architecture supports:
‡ Direct addressing for the first 8 bits of address
space
‡ Indirect addressing (variable pointer addressing)
for all memory space.
‡ Includes a CPU with associated status bits and a
set of special functions registers.
‡ I/O ports, other peripherals (such as comparators,
A/D converters, PWM modules, etc.)
‡ Timers, status indications and much more,
 
 ?
‡ All modules available to the user.
‡ User writable registers are also provided.
‡ Microprocessors have been designed to respond to
specific needs: common to find modifications that
respond to these needs
‡ Example: various processors from the same family
may have a different instruction sets
± PIC10FXX has 33 instructions
± PIC18FXX20 has 77 instructions
± ATmega128 (from Atmel) has 133 instructions.
 
 ?
‡ Memory varies from 256 bytes to over 256
kbytes
‡ Number of peripherals, ports, etc vary from
as few as 4 to over 100
‡ Physical size: from 6 pin to 100 pins
‡ Various chip configurations (DIP, surface
mount, dies etc.)
ð   
‡ 8 bit microprocessors have word length of 8 bits.
‡ Integer data from 0 to 255 may be represented
directly.
‡ To address memory, usually a longer word is
needed.
‡ Most microprocessor have a 12 bit (4k) 14 (16k)
or 16 bit (64k) memory address but longer address
words are also used.
ÿ
‡ Most microprocessor operate at clock
speeds between 1 and 40 MHz.
‡ Since often the clock is internally divided,
the instruction cycle is slower than that
‡ Typical values are up to about 10 MHz
cycle clock or 0.1 ws per instruction
c




‡ Microprocessors have a small instruction set 
‡ sometimes no more than 2-3 dozen simple
instructions.
‡ Varies from a minimum of about 30 to a
maximum of about 150 instructions.
‡ These are selected to cover the common
requirements of programming a device
‡ Allows one to perform almost any task that can be
physically performed within the basic limitations
of the device.
c




‡ Instructions include:
± logical instructions (AND, OR, XOR, etc.)
± move and branching instructions (allow one to move
data from and to registers and conditional and
unconditional branching)
± bit instructions (operations on single bits in an operand)
± arithmetic instructions such as add and subtract,
± subroutine calls
± other instructions that have to do with the performance
of the microprocessor such as reset, sleep and others.
‡ Some are bit oriented, some are byte (register)
oriented, some are literal and control operations
c 




‡ Input and output is defined by the availability of
pins on the package.
‡ Usually limited to less than about 100 pins (6, 8,
14, 18, 20, 28, 32, 40, 44, 64 and 100 pins are
common).
‡ Two pins are used to power to the device
‡ For example, an 18 pin device can have no more
than 14 I/O pins.
‡ Of these, some may be used for other purposes
such as oscillators or communication
c 




‡ All microprocessor will have a number of pins
available as I/O.
‡ Example, a 6 pin microprocessor may have as
many as 4 I/O, a 64 pin processor can have in
excess of 48 I/O pins.
‡ I/O pins are grouped into ports, each addressable
as an 8 bit word (each group has up to 8 I/O pins).
‡ Different ports may have different properties and
may be able to perform different functions.
c 




‡ I/O pins are tri-state enabling an I/O pin to serve
as input, output or to be disconnected.
‡ Most I/O are digital but some may be configured
as analog as well.
‡ I/O pins can supply or sink considerable current 
usually in the range of 20-25 mA.
‡ This is not sufficient to drive many actuators but it
can drive low power devices directly or indirectly
through switches and amplifiers.

 

‡ icroprocessor must have a timing mechanism
that defines the instruction cycle.
‡ This is done by an oscillator
‡ Oscillators may be internal or external.
‡ Usually and RC oscillator is used for internal
oscillation
‡ A crystal is the most common way of setting the
frequency externally (this requires either dedicated
pins or the use of two I/O pins).

 

‡ The oscillator frequency is usually divided
internally to define the basic cycle time.
‡ Microprocessors have internal timers
± under the control of the user
± used for various functions requiring counting/timing
± At least one counter is available
± larger microprocessors can have 4 or more timers
± some are 8 bit timers and some 16 bit timers.
± a watchdog timer is available for the purpose of
resetting the processor should it be
stuck in an
inoperative mode.

 

‡ Registers
‡ Used for
‡ Execution of commands
‡ Control over the functions of the microprocessor,
‡ Addressing
‡ Flagging
‡ Status indication


‡ Modern microprocessors, contain three
types of memory:
‡ program memory, in which the program is
loaded,
‡ data memory (RAM),
‡ EEPROM memory
‡ Note: EEPROM not available on some very
small microprocessors.


‡ Program memory is usually the largest
‡ From less than 256 bytes to over 256kBytes.
‡ In most cases, flash memory which means that is
rewritable at will and is nonvolatile (program is
retained until rewritten or erased).
‡ Data memory (RAM) is usually quite small and
may be a small fraction of the program memory
‡ Does not retain data upon removal of power.
‡ EEPROM is nonvolatile rewritable memory used
mostly to write data during execution
Ä

‡ Most microprocessor operate from 1.8V to 6V.
‡ Some have a more limited range (2.7-5.5V).
‡ Based on CMOS technology: This means that:
± power consumption is very modest.
± power consumption is frequency dependent.
‡ The higher the frequency the higher the power
consumed
Ä

‡ Power is also dependent on
‡ What the processor does
‡ Which modules are functioning at any given time.
‡ The user has considerable control over power
consumption through:
± Choice of frequency
± Mode of operation
± Special functions such as interrupt wakeup and sleep.
v
  



‡ Microprocessor must have certain modules (CPU,
memory and I/O)
‡ They can have many more modules
‡ Add functionality and flexibility
‡ Many microprocessors include
± comparators (for digitization purposes),
± A/D converters,
± Capture and Compare (CCP) modules,
± PWM generators
± Communication interfaces.
v
  



‡ One or two comparators are provided on many
microprocessors.
‡ Depending on the microprocessors 8 or 10 bit A/D
converters are provided, usually in multiple
channels (4 to 16).
‡ PWM channels (up to 8) are common on some
processors.
‡ Serial interfaces such as UART, SPI, two wire
interface (I2C), synchronous serial and USB ports
are available
v
  



‡ Many microprocessors provide multiple
interfaces, all under the userÚs control.
‡ Other functions such as analog amplifiers and
even transceivers are sometimes incorporated
within the chip.
‡ The I/O used for these functions are either digital
I/O (for communication for example) or analog
I/O (for A/D for example)
Ä
 



‡ A microprocessor is only useful if it can be
programmed.
‡ Programming languages and compilers have been
designed specifically for microprocessors.
‡ The basic method of programming
microprocessors is through the Assembly
programming language
‡ Can be, and very often is done through use of
higher level languages with C leading.
Ä
 



‡ These are specific compilers, adapted for a class
of microprocessors.
‡ They are based on a standard C compiled (such as
ANSI C) and modified to produce executables that
can be loaded onto the microprocessor.
‡ Most microprocessors can be programmed in
circuit allowing changes to be made, or the
processors to be programmed or reprogrammed
after the circuit has been built.
Ä
 



‡ Instruction sets for microprocessors are small and
based on the assembly language nomenclature.
‡ Microprocessors have been designed for integer
operations.
‡ Programming for control, especially sequential
control is simple and logical.
‡ Floating point operations and, are either not
practical or difficult and tedious.
‡ They also tend to require considerable time and
should only be attempted if absolutely necessary.
Ä
 



‡ There are both integer and floating point
libraries freely available.
‡ Floating point operations are only practical
on the larger microprocessors because they
require much memory.
 
 



‡ Äc=


(low level, 6 pin),
‡ Äc=
(midrange, 18 pin),
‡ Äc=

 (high level, 64 or 80 pin),
‡ ð
 (high level, 64 pin).
‡ A comparison of these typical processors
will reveal most of the properties and
capabilities of microprocessors.
c
  c 
‡    
 
±  

 
  
 


 



 
 



±  Ä
 
 

±  c





 
 

‡ 


   
 
   


 

‡ c



 


 




 

 
 
‡  


 
 
Ú




  

‡ v


  



Ä
  

‡ ÿ


  
 





 

‡ c



 


 





‡  


 
 
Ú




  

 
  
 
‡ v


  



c



‡ 


    

‡ v



 
 

 

 
‡ 
  




 



 







‡  
 


 




 
‡ c

 

‡ c

    





 

‡  


    
 


  


 

 

  



  



‡ =  
 


  

 


 


a 
 
? 
?  
 ?   ? ? 
? 
?  
 ?    
?  
  ? 


?   
 ? 
? 
?  
 ?

 




 ? 
   
 ?

?? ? 
 ?

? 
  
?


? 
v? 
? 
?  
 ?

 Ä !
  
?
 ?

 [
?"#  $

 
?
? 


 % 

 
??

 

&

 

 '?

?  (&'
 


 
 
 ( '
 ? ?
? ?  
 


` wÄ
 ? ? ? 


?
 )* 
  * +w(,


 
? ?   !
? 

  -
 ?
  ?   ?,.
 /? ? 

  -

??
 ?,. 

 $ 
  !
 
??
 

 
    
 !
?
 
? 


?
 %     

 


    

  ?
 
  ?
? ?
 %
 ! 
  
? 
  ?   
 

 
 0
" /#wÄ?  ,1
w,-   
??
  2
 

 * 1?  ?
.
 (  
?  


? 
? 
?
 
 
 ? ",/#
 
? 




? 
2/#
 (   
? 
?

 
 ? !?

  
 

 
   ? "
 '??
   Ú 
 
 ???
 
0
  wÄ
 *$ 
 
 ?  
 
0

    
? 
 3     
?   Ä,
 0 ?
 
 ?   
 ?

?? ? 
 v
 Ä?
? 

 
  
!
 3

   

  ?  

   
?
 
?,
 (?

 ?  

   

?  ? ?


v
 0

   ? "
4
 $
?  5   ,! 


4

1000Ω
12V
microprocessor

thermistor
500Ω at 20°C
v
 (4
 $-&.61$
 (4
 $-&1.617,1$
 (4
 $-&5.65,81$
 $
?! 7,1$

,81$
 ,81$?
  $ 
?  
 
  ?   
v
   ? 
  7,1$   
? ? 
??
 
   
 $ 

8$, ?!?
 
 ,91$ 
,1$
 
 ?  : 

:, ?!?
  

!?

 ,8$ 1,$
 v*   ? 
  
?

 ??
?
 v 
 ?
??
? ? 

 [?* 
?

 
??

 

!?  ?   

C
S

R
 v*   ? 
 [?
 ?
 [
 
? 
 v"$
4 ,7$
4,
 v 
?




 ' 

?  
  !*? 
 $ !? ,9 ? 

400Ω 400Ω

12V

400Ω 400Ω − 900Ω

thermistor
 
? 
 [
??
?
 v
?

??
 [
 
?
 v
?

??
 ?

??

 
  - 
.
 ( ??


 '??
? 
 
 
  
 ?

?
  
?
 ! 
? 

 
  
 v?
? 
?

optical coupler
sensor driver

LED photodiode


? 
 ?   

   
 % 
?!?  !? 

  
 
  ? ? 


  
  ? " 
  !!? ? 


 (  
 

?  

2 ?  

  
 v 

   ?   "
 , 8$
   ( ?
 
 !



?- '


.
 Ä ? 
?
 
 
 v 




"
 

??    !

 v
?

  ? 

?

" 

 ? 

? 


?2
 v  
 ? 
 
 $   
 

 
 

v? 
 v"
 '?
v?  ?  



  ?  
 ? 2?  
  ! 
 !

? "

Vdd Vdd
Vdd Vdd

230Ω
load
load

70Ω load load

  

 ?
  ? 

 
?   "
 '  ?  (&''&(
 
?  
   ? 

??  
 

?    &

 
  ?
 '??
 

?  
 ? "
 [* 
? ??
?
 ( 


  [

 

  ? ?
 

 [??  ? 


!

?  Ä3?
  ?  

 (&'* ? ?  
? "

?(&'
???#? 
$? 

 ? 
"

$&11, $

  (&'
 

!  1, $
 
 


? ?    1, $
 -
1?(&' 
!  ,7 $.
  
$
 
   ??
 0?

, 
  ?  

 Ä:-Ä:?
 

 .
 a? 
 2   Ä: ? 
?"

( 
/ Ä
)
Ä
.=
(2)
 Ä3 
   ?   
?
?   
 
? ?


 
"8
  
 
  ? 
?
 ?

  ? 
 

 
  ? ? ?#  
-  !? ! 



? .
 
?  
 (? 

  
 ?   



,
?"
 
 


? 

 v
 



? 

 


      2 
? 
 0


   !

0?
 
? 
   

?  
? 

   
   
? 
2

? 
? 
  

 
? ? & ! 

?  ! ?   ?   ? ?? 
  
 ?0
*


   ?   !
!  
?!?