EEL4595 University of Florida Fall 2004

EEL4595
Data and Computer Comm.
Professor George
Stallings – Chapter 2
Protocol Architecture

NOTE: Many figures and other materials in this presentation are borrowed from
required and reference textbooks cited on the class web page.

1
EEL4595 University of Florida Fall 2004

Protocol Characteristics
Direct or indirect
Monolithic or structured
Symmetric or asymmetric
Standard or nonstandard

2
EEL4595 University of Florida Fall 2004

Direct or Indirect
Direct
 Systems share a point-to-point link or
 Systems share a multi-point link
 Data can pass without intervening active
agent
Indirect
 Switched networks or
 Internetworks a.k.a. internets
 Data transfer depends on other entities
3
EEL4595 University of Florida Fall 2004

Example: Ethernet vs. SCI

32
Alpha Cluster
(32 nodes, 1 CPU/node)
32
Beta Cluster
(32 nodes, 1 CPU/node)

Nortel Networks
BayStack 420 stack
(cascaded BS420-24Ts)

32
Delta Cluster
(32 nodes, 2 CPUs/node)

Nortel Networks
BPS2000 stack
1000BASE-SX (cascaded BPS-24Ts)
100BASE-T

32
Zeta Cluster
(32 nodes, 2 CPUs/node)

Nortel Networks Nortel Networks

Passport 8106 Passport 8606
Edge Switch Routing Switch

32
Eta Cluster
(32 nodes, 2 CPUs/node)

Theta Cluster
(40 nodes, 1 CPU/node)
40 Nortel Networks
Passport 8110
Edge Switch

4
EEL4595 University of Florida Fall 2004

Monolithic or Structured
Communications is a complex task
Often too complex for single unit
Structured design breaks down problem
into smaller units
Layered structure

5
EEL4595 University of Florida Fall 2004

Symmetric or Asymmetric
Symmetric
 Communication between peer entities
Asymmetric
 e.g. client/server

6
EEL4595 University of Florida Fall 2004

Standard or Nonstandard
Nonstandard protocols built for specific
computers and tasks
K sources and L receivers  KxL
protocols and 2xKxL implementations
If one common protocol used, only K+L
implementations needed

7
EEL4595 University of Florida Fall 2004

Use of Standard Protocols

8
EEL4595 University of Florida Fall 2004

Common Protocol Functions

Encapsulation
Segmentation and reassembly
Connection control
Ordered delivery
Flow control
Error control
Addressing
Multiplexing
Transmission services
9
EEL4595 University of Florida Fall 2004

Encapsulation
Addition of control information to data
 Address information
 Error-detecting code
 Protocol control

10
EEL4595 University of Florida Fall 2004

Segmentation (a.k.a. Fragmentation)

Shown in previous slide’s example
Data blocks are of bounded size
Application layer messages may be large
Network packets may be smaller
Splitting larger blocks into smaller ones is
segmentation (or “fragmentation” in TCP/IP)
Examples:
 ATM blocks (cells) are 53 octets (bytes) long
 Basic Ethernet blocks (frames) are up to 1526 octets
(bytes) long
 Sizes above are for entire block, not just payload 11
EEL4595 University of Florida Fall 2004

Why Fragment?
Advantages
 More efficient error control
 More equitable access to network facilities
 Shorter delays
 Smaller buffers needed
Disadvantages
 Overheads
 Increased interrupts at receiver
 More processing time
12
EEL4595 University of Florida Fall 2004

Connection Control
Connection establishment
Data transfer
Connection termination
Perhaps also connection interruption and
recovery
Sequence numbers used for
 Ordered delivery
 Flow control
 Error control
13
EEL4595 University of Florida Fall 2004

Connection-Oriented Data Transfer

14
EEL4595 University of Florida Fall 2004

Ordered Delivery
PDUs may traverse different paths through
network
PDUs may arrive out of order
We can sequentially number PDUs to
allow for ordering

15
EEL4595 University of Florida Fall 2004

Flow Control
Performed by receiving entity
Limit amount or rate of data
Simplest is stop-and-wait flow control
Credit systems are more sophisticated
 e.g. sliding window
FC needed at application as well as
network layers

16
EEL4595 University of Florida Fall 2004

Error Control
Guard against loss or damage
Error detection
 Sender inserts error detecting bits
 Receiver checks these bits
 If OK, acknowledge
 If error, discard packet
Retransmission
 If no acknowledge in given time, retransmit
Performed at various levels
17
EEL4595 University of Florida Fall 2004

Addressing
Addressing level
Addressing scope
Connection identifiers
Addressing mode

18
EEL4595 University of Florida Fall 2004

Addressing level
Level in architecture at which entity is
named
Unique address for each end system
(computer) and router
Network level address
 IP or internet address (TCP/IP)
 Network service access point or NSAP (OSI)
Process within the system
 Port number (TCP/IP)
 Service access point or SAP (OSI)
19
EEL4595 University of Florida Fall 2004

Address Concepts

20
EEL4595 University of Florida Fall 2004

Addressing Scope
Globally unambiguous
 Global address identifies a unique system
 There is only one system with address X
Globally applicable
 Possible at any system (any address) to
identify any other system (address) by the
global address of the other system
 Address X identifies that system from
anywhere on the network
e.g. MAC address on IEEE 802 networks
21
EEL4595 University of Florida Fall 2004

Connection Identifiers
Connection-oriented data transfer (e.g.
virtual circuit)
Allocate connection name during transfer
phase
 Reduced overhead as connection identifiers
are shorter than global addresses
 Routing may be fixed and identified by
connection name
 Entities may want multiple connections -
multiplexing
 State information
22
EEL4595 University of Florida Fall 2004

Addressing Mode
Usually an address refers to a single
system
 Unicast address
 Sent to one machine or person
May address all entities within a domain
 Broadcast
 Sent to all machines or users
May address a subset of the entities in a
domain
 Multicast
 Sent to some machines or a group of users
23
EEL4595 University of Florida Fall 2004

Multiplexing
Supporting multiple connections on one machine
Mapping of multiple connections at one level to
a single connection at another
 Upward MUXing (multiple higher-level connections on
one lower-level one
e.g. carrying a number of different connections on a single
fiber-optic cable
 Downward MUXing (splitting)
e.g. aggregating or bonding Ethernet links to raise
throughput

24
EEL4595 University of Florida Fall 2004

Transmission Services
Priority
 e.g. control messages may warrant
Quality of service
 Controllable performance
 e.g. Min. acceptable throughput
 e.g. Max. acceptable delay (a.k.a. latency)
Security
 Access restrictions

25
EEL4595 University of Florida Fall 2004

OSI - The Model

A layered model
 Each layer performs a subset of the required
communication functions
 Each layer relies on the next lower layer to
perform more primitive functions
 Each layer provides services to the next
higher layer
Changes in one layer should not require
changes in other layers

26
EEL4595 University of Florida Fall 2004

The OSI Environment

27
EEL4595 University of Florida Fall 2004

OSI as Framework for Standardization

28
EEL4595 University of Florida Fall 2004

Layer-Specific Standards

29
EEL4595 University of Florida Fall 2004

Elements of Standardization
Protocol specification
 Operates between the same layer on two
systems
 May involve different operating systems
 Protocol specification must be precise
Format of data units
Semantics of all fields
Allowable sequence of PDUs
Service definition
 Functional description of what is provided
Addressing
 Referenced by SAPs 30
EEL4595 University of Florida Fall 2004

OSI Layers (1)

Physical (L1)
 Physical interface between devices
Mechanical (physical properties of interface)
Electrical (representation of bits and data rate)
Functional (function of circuits)
Procedural (sequence of events)
Data Link (L2)
 Means of activating, maintaining and
deactivating a reliable link
 Error detection and control
 Higher layers may assume error-free
transmission
31
EEL4595 University of Florida Fall 2004

OSI Layers (2)

Network (L3)
 Transport of information
 Higher layers do not need to know about
underlying technology
 Not needed on direct links
Transport (L4)
 Exchange of data between end systems
 Error free
 In sequence
 No losses and no duplicates
 Quality of service
32
EEL4595 University of Florida Fall 2004

OSI Layers (3)

Session (L5)
 Control of dialogues between applications
 Dialogue discipline
 Grouping of like data
 Checkpointing and recovery
Presentation (L6)
 Data formats and coding
 Data compression
 Encryption
Application (L7)
 Means for apps. to access OSI environment
33
EEL4595 University of Florida Fall 2004

Use of a Relay

34
EEL4595 University of Florida Fall 2004

TCP/IP Protocol Suite

Dominant commercial protocol
architecture
Specified and extensively used before OSI
Developed by research funded from US
Department of Defense
Used by the Internet

35
EEL4595 University of Florida Fall 2004

TCP/IP Protocol Architecture (1)

Application Layer
 Communication between processes or
applications
End-to-end or transport layer
(TCP/UDP/…)
 End-to-end transfer of data
 May include reliability mechanism (TCP)
 Hides detail of underlying network
Internet Layer (IP)
 Routing of data
36
EEL4595 University of Florida Fall 2004

TCP/IP Protocol Architecture (2)

Network Layer
 Logical interface between end system and
network
Physical Layer
 Transmission medium
 Signal rate and encoding

37
EEL4595 University of Florida Fall 2004

PDUs in TCP/IP

38
EEL4595 University of Florida Fall 2004

Some Protocols in TCP/IP Suite

39
EEL4595 University of Florida Fall 2004

IP Internet
Network 1 (Ethernet)
Concatenation of H7 R3 H8

Networks H1 H2 H3
Network 4
Network 2 (Ethernet) (point-to-point)
R1
R2

H4
Network 3 (FDDI)

H5 H6

Protocol Stack
H1 H8

TCP R1 R2 R3 TCP

IP IP IP IP IP

ETH ETH FDDI FDDI PPP PPP ETH ETH

40
EEL4595 University of Florida Fall 2004

Different types of services

41
EEL4595 University of Florida Fall 2004

TCP Characteristics
Connection-oriented Full duplex
Byte-stream Flow control
 app writes bytes  keep sender from
 TCP sends segments overrunning receiver
 app reads bytes
Congestion control
 keep sender from
overrunning network
Application process Application process

Write Read
…

bytes bytes

TCP TCP
Send buffer Receive buffer

…
Segment Segment Segment
Transmit segments
42
EEL4595 University of Florida Fall 2004

Network congestion?
Two sides of the same coin
 pre-allocate resources to avoid congestion
 control congestion if (and when) it occurs

Router Destination
1.5-Mbps T1 link

Source
2

Two points of implementation

 hosts at the edge of the network (transport protocol)
 routers within the network fabric (queuing discipline)
Underlying service model
 best-effort model (assume for now as default)
 multiple qualities of service (array of options)
43