Training & Development Needs Analysis

Training
 Overview
 Models of Learning
– Reinforcement Theories
– Cybernetic & Information Theories
– Cognitive Theories & Problem Solving
– Experiential Learning Cycle
 The ‘learner’ and the organisation’ : transfer
 Model of Training Needs Analysis (TNA) : individual
and organisational levels of analysis
 Special training and development needs : diversity
management
Learning

‘Training and developmental activities are designed to

bring about changes in behaviour’
Arnold, Cooper & Robertson (1998)

Learning is ‘a relatively permanent change in behaviour

that occurs as a result of practice or experience’
Bass & Vaughan (1966)

 How do we learn ? Psychological theories...

 Reinforcement Theories
 Pavlov (1904) ‘Classical Conditioning’ - making dogs
dribble

 Skinner (1965) ‘Operant Conditioning’ - teaching

pigeons ‘ping-pong’

 Watson & Rayner (1920) ‘little Albert’

 Nord (1969) application of Skinner’s ‘positive

reinforcement’ principles to org./mgmt practices
 N.B. Conditioning by punishment ?
 Cybernetic & Information Theories
How information is received and monitored (‘’human
thermostats’’ - Stammers & Patrick, 1975)

Power Source Monitoring Process

(muscular action) (receipt of ‘cues’ through
the senses)

Feedback

Skills Analysis - what ‘cues’ or ‘stimuli’ an experienced

worker is being guided by (e.g. typist : ‘hunt & peck’)
Cognitive Theories & Problem Solving
 Reflect the way in which we learn to
recognise and define problems or
experiment to find solutions
– trial & error
– deductive reasoning
– information seeking
 Kohler (1973) Theory of ‘Insight Learning’ or
‘Discovery Learning’ (e.g. Chimps, bananas
and sticks or Archimedes ‘Eureka!!’)
 Gagné’s Hierarchy of Learning
 8 major varieties of learning, hierarchically related, each
building on earlier, more simple abilities (which therefore
act as prerequisites for more complex abilities)
– Signal Learning (classical conditioning)
– Stimulus-Response Learning (operant conditioning)
– Chaining (connecting sequence of 2+ S-R units)
– Verbal Association (learning ‘verbal’ chains)
– Discrimination Learning (different responses to similar stimuli)
– Concept Learning (common response to different stimuli in gp)
– Rule Learning (a chain of 2 or more concepts I.e. if ‘A’ then ‘B’)
– Problem Solving (recombining old rules into new ones)
 Experiential Learning
Kolb (1974) : ‘Learning Cycle’
Concrete
Testing experience Observations
implications of & Reflections
concepts in new
situations Formation of
abstract concepts
& generalisations

Honey & Mumford (1986, 1992) : ‘Learning Styles’

– activist : open-minded, actively involved, bored with implementation
– reflector : ponder experiences, cautious, ‘back-seat’, ‘bigger picture’
– theorist : adapt & integrate observations, vertical, logical, hierarchical
– pragmatist : try out new ideas to see if they work in practice
 The ‘Learner-Organisation’ Interaction (I)
 Learner Motivation
– Otto & Glaser (1970) : taxonomy of motivational factors in learning :
achievement motivation, anxiety, approval, curiosity, acquisitiveness
 Knowledge of results (feedback)
– form of reinforcement
– Extrinsic KR
– Intrinsic KR
– Learning curves & plateau
 Attitude formation & change
– predispose learners to action
– having ‘harmonious attitudes’ (Festinger’s concept of cognitive
dissonance, 1957)
– group discussion, providing new information
The ‘Learner-Organisation’ Interaction (II)
Age
– less brain cells, speeded performance declines
– short-term memory deteriorates (increased errors in
cognitively complex tasks)
– Welford (1962) older less able to cope with large
amounts of information and
– vocab. and comprehension increase (reasoning and
numerical ability test scores decreased)
– Vernon (1960) rate of decline slowest in originally
high scorers.
– Stimulation
– Education & Training offset decline in abilities
 Transfer
 ‘Training transfer occurs when new learning is used in new settings
beyond those employed for training purposes’ (Arnold, Cooper &
Robertson, 1998)
 Positive Learning Transfer
– ‘when learning that has already taken place on one task assists later learning on
another’
– vertical positive transfer : one subject acts as a basis for another (e.g. maths to
statistics)
– lateral positive transfer : occurs when the same type of stimulus requires the same
response (e.g. flight simulators)
– N.B. ‘On-’ vs ‘Off-the-job’ Training
 Negative Transfer
– ‘when an old learning or past experience can hinder performance on a new task;
when the same stimuli requires a different response’ (e.g. driving on right hand
side)
 Factors that assist Transfer
Individual
 Understanding of general principles

– facilitated by discovery learning; issue of physical and

psychological ‘fidelity’
 Overlearning

– practising beyond the level of minimum competence

 Association

– getting the trainee to associate new learning with other, previous,

learning.
Organisational
 Supportive culture ?

 Congruent norms/values/attitudes
 Goldstein (1986, 1991, 1993)
Model of Training Needs Analysis
Stage One
Establish organisation’s commitment and support

Stage Two
Organisational Analysis

Stage Three
Requirement Analysis

Stage Four
‘Needs Assessment’ - Task & KSA analysis of training needs

Stage Five
‘Person Analysis’

Stage Six
Collate data to input to, and design of, training environment
and training evaluation
 Stage One : Establishing Organisational
Commitment and Support
Identify whose co-operation is needed, i.e.
management, workers, clients, other stakeholders.
‘Project Parameters’ : rationale of approach(es), time
needed, numbers of people involved, admin. (&
other) support needed.
Glaser & Taylor (1973)
– collaborative approach
– highly motivated, ‘team-like’ interface
– early and active contacts between parties
Goldstein (1993) advocates a ‘liaison team’
 Stage Two : Organisational Analysis
of Training Needs

 Central Issue = ‘how well is the organisation doing?’

N.B. Organisation does not have to be underperforming
to need development
 Importance of the ‘transfer’ climate : system-wide

factors that may support/undermine training

 Goldstein (1993) : 4 stages of OA

– Specify training goals (3 types)

– Determine training climate
– Identify legal constraints (vertical and horizontal)
– Determine resources available
 Stage Three : Requirement Analysis

Goldstein (1993) : 6 stages

 determine target job to be assessed

 identify how needs assessment data best collected

– interviews, observations, surveys, tests, records, SME’s,

focus groups, work samples, etc.
 determine who is going to provide necessary info
 ascertain key points of contact and their
responsibilities
 anticipate problems and difficulties
 develop a TNA protocol
 Stage Four : Needs Assessment
Task Analysis
 TA for TNA should provide a job specification
(KSA’s/competencies required). Training spec. derived from
difference between employees’ current and ideal levels
 Reid & Barrington (1997) : 3 main TNA TA approaches (task
identification & task element analysis)
– Comprehensive Approach
– Key Task Analysis
– Problem-Centred Approach
 Task fidelity (physical and psychological)
– e.g. stages and ‘key points analysis’, manual skills analysis, job
learning analysis, faults analysis, benchmarking, Critical Incidents
Technique.
 Stage Five : Person Analysis

 Who in the organisation needs training

 What kind of training is needed
 KSA deficits - must have suitable performance
criteria
– performance appraisal ratings
– 360-feedback ratings
– KSA’s of new recruits
– Development Centre ratings
– self-assessments
 Special Training Needs
 Retraining
– learning how to learn
– the ageing workforce
 Managing Diversity
– cross-cultural training (increasing globalisation, multi-cultural
societies)
– Equal Opportunities legislation
 Training the Unemployed
– long-term unemployed (more than 27 weeks continuously)
– causes of long-term unemployment (physical, psychological &
environmental factors)