Indian Institute of Welding – ANB

Refresher Course – Module 01

Metals – Structure
and Weldability
 Contents

 Structure of Metals

 Structure of Steels

 Weldability of Steels
A Metallurgical Process

 Welding is the joining of two or more

pieces of metal by applying
 Heat or
 Pressure or both …. to form a
 Localized union through
 Fusion
 Re-crystallization across the interface

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 Why should Welding Technologists
learn metallurgy
 Welding is mostly done for fabrication of metals
and alloys

 The final properties of the welded assembly will

depend on the metallurgical structure of the parent
metal and the weld.

 All welding processes involve heating and cooling

of the components being welded

 Thus to ensure a satisfactory welded component,

it is necessary to understand metallurgical
structures and how they and the weld thermal
cycle, determine the properties of the weld joint.
Welding a major fabrication process

 General Engineering
 Construction - Earthmoving equipment, cranes
 Infrastructure - Buildings , bridges , roads, flyovers, tunnels
 Projects -, refineries, fertilizers, steel plants, chemical &
petrochemical plants
 Automotive sector - 2- wheelers, cars, trucks, buses
 Railways - Coaches, locomotives, wagons
 Shipbuilding and aircraft
 Power plants & pressure vessels
 Consumer durable - Refrigerators, ACs, Almirahs
 Defence - Tanks, APCs, Aircraft, Rockets
 Food processing - Dairy, brewery, cooking, freezing eqpt.
 Materials of Construction

 Mild steels, High strength low alloy steels

All general engineering, Infrastructure, Automotive, Shipbuilding,
Railways
 High tensile steels
Defence, penstocks for hydel plants
 Creep resisting steels.
Boilers and piping in thermal power plants
 Stainless steels - Austenitic
Chemical & petrochemical plant, refineries, cryogenic plant, food
processing, pharmaceuticals
 Aluminium
Light structurals, boats, dairy equipment, busbars
 Copper, Nickel and alloys, Titanium
Vessel, piping & heat exchangers in chemicals & food
Structure of Metals
 Structure of metals

 All metals and alloys are crystalline bodies with their atoms
arranged in regular order, which is periodically repeated in
three directions
 They distinguish them from amorphous bodies whose atoms
are in random order
 Metals obtained by conventional methods are polycrystalline
bodies, consisting of great number of fine crystals differently
oriented with respect to one another
 All typical properties of metals can be explained by the fact
that they contain highly mobile electrons.
 Common Properties of Metals

 All metals do exhibit some typical properties,

common to them:
 high thermal and electrical conductivity - due to presence of
free electron
 positive temperature co-efficient of electrical resistivity
 thermo-ionic emission
 good reflectivity of light
 lend themselves to plastic deformation - due to ordered
arrangement of atom
 Pure Metals & Alloys

 In their ordinary structural state pure metals are of

low strength and do not possess required
physicochemical and structural properties for
required service, in most cases. Consequently they
are seldom used in engineering applications.
 Overwhelming majority of metals are thus used as
alloys.
 Example :
 Steel, Cast iron, Copper alloys, Aluminium alloys etc
 Structure of metals
 The basic structure of a metal or alloy is a crystal consisting
of the metal atoms located in a specific 3-dimensional
arrangement or lattice
 For iron you have 2 crystal structures - polymorphism

Alpha iron – upto 912 deg C Gamma iron – 912 – 1394 deg C
Delta iron – 1394 – 1539 deg C
HCP- Hexagonal Close packed

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Single Crystal

Unit Cell
Polycrystal

Grain
boundary
 Crystal boundary or
Grain boundary
 In these regions there exists a film of metals, some
three atoms thick, in which atoms do not conform to
any pattern
 This crystal boundary is of amorphous nature
 Metallic bond acts within and across the crystal
boundary and therefore not necessarily an area of
weakness
 Impurity atoms has got tendency to segregate at
grain boundary or crystal boundary.
 Depending on the nature of impurity atom they may
strengthen or weaken the boundary
Grain Boundary
 Defects in Metals - Dislocations

 Any real crystal always has defects in its

structure and deviates from perfect periodicity
 These defects are called Lattice defects / Lattice
imperfections / Dislocations
 Metals and alloys get deformed when
dislocations are forced to move by the
application of force
 Any solute atom, phase or inter-metallic that
resists the flow of dislocations are the
strengthening agents in any alloy system
 Structure of metals

 Phases are distinct states of aggregation of

matter
 Gases : Always single phase
 Liquids : Pure liquid or solution – single phase,
immiscible liquids eg. Oil & water – two phases
 Solids : Different crystal structures ( even having
the same composition ) form different phases.
Can be single or multi-phase.
 A phase is a homogeneous and physically
distinct portion of the material
 Microstructure, as seen under a microscope
reveals the phases that exist in the material
together
Structure of metals…..
 Grains
 During solidification from the liquid
phase or re-crystallization from one
solid phase to another, crystals
nucleate at different points within
the parent phase and grow until
they impinge on one another and
form individual grains.
 Structure
 Structure of a metal / alloy implies
the metallurgical phases present,
their dispersion, shape, orientation
and grain size. All of these go to
determine its physical and
mechanical properties
Structure of Steels
 Carbon & Alloy steels

 Steels are alloys of iron with a max.

carbon content of 2%
 Plain carbon steels contain less than 1.65
Mn, 0.6 Si and 0.6 Cu
 Alloys steels contain Mn, Si, Cu in greater
quantities or other alloying elements
 Alloying additions enhance their mechanical
properties
 Typical alloying elements are Ni, Cr, Mo, V

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 Phases in steel

 Ferrite:
 solid solution of carbon in α-
iron; Maximum solubility of C:
0.022% at 727°C
 Austenite: Ferrite or
 solid solution of carbon in γ- α iron
iron; Maximum solubility of C:
2.11% at 1146°C
 Delta(δ) ferrite:
 solid solution of carbon in delta
iron; Maximum solubility of C:
0.09% at 1495°C Austenite or
γ iron

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 Phases in steel
 Graphite:
 crystalline form of carbon having a
hexagonal crystal structure. Only
forms on very slow cooling
 Pearlite:
 Lamellar structure consisting of
alternate bands of Ferrite and
Cementite
Pearlite
 Cementite (Fe3C):
 an inter-metallic compound having a
complex orthorhombic structure; C -
6.67% by wt. Even though this is a
meta-stable phase, carbon is almost
always present in this form in steels.
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 Fe-C phase diagram

 The Fe-C (iron-carbon diagram)

helps us to understand the phases
in steel
 Important Concepts to understand
are:
 This is an “Equilibrium” diagram
 “Steels & Irons” – a clear distinction
 “Phase fields” & “reactions”
 “Critical temperatures”

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Phase transformation reactions
in steel

 Peritectic reaction
(1495°C)
 Liquid Fe + δ-Ferrite =
Austenite
 Eutectic reaction (1146°C)
 Liquid Fe = Austenite +
Cementite (Eutectic
mixture of austenite and
cementite is called
Ledeburite)
 Eutectoid reaction (727°C)
 Austenite = Ferrite +
Cementite (Eutectic
mixture of Ferrite and
Cementite called Pearlite)

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Phase transformation reactions
in steel..

 Micro-structures of
slowly cooled steels
 Eutectoid steel
 ( 0.77% C ) – fully
pearlitic
 Hypo-eutectoid steel
 (<0.77% C ) – Pro-
eutectoid ferrite +
Pearlite
 Hyper-eutectoid steel
 (>0.77% C ) – Pro-
eutectoid cementite
+ Pearlite

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 Effect of composition & cooling rate on
microstructure

A large variety of microstructures can

Austenite: fcc be developed in ferritic steel by
changing composition & cooling rate
Ferrite: bcc
Effect of cooling rate on Pearlite

Pearlitic structure is lamellar with

alternate bands of ferrite +
pearlite

Faster cooling
V. Fine pearlite 35 – 40 Rc

Fast cooling
Fine pearlite 20 – 25 Rc
( air cooled )

Slow cooling
Coarse pearlite 5 – 10 Rc
( furnace cooled )

Cooling rate
Temperature – Time – Transformation
T-T-T Diagrams
 Martensite
Martensite : Martensite
 Very hard and brittle phase.

 Formed on rapid cooling below

Ms temperature
Tempered Martensite : however
has a good combination of
strength and toughness and is
a useful structure and is
developed by re-heating
martensite
 Hardness depends on carbon
content of steel

Carbon % 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.8

Hardness Rc 38 44 50 57 60 63 65
 Bainite
 Formed in alloyed steels Bainite + accicular ferrite
when austenite is cooled
rapidly passed the nose of
the C-curve .
 Extremely fine mixture of
ferrite + carbide but not
lamellar like pearlite
 Formed between 500 – 220
C Upper Bainite or lower
Bainite depending on
temp.
 Has higher hardness and
toughness than pearlite
A variety of microstructures & hence properties can be
obtained in steel by controlled cooling
 Mild steel for structural purposes

 Carbon 0.15 – 0.25 % ( covered by IS: 2062 )

 Used in as-rolled and air-cooled condition in the
form of plates, channels & other structural
sections
 Structure : Ferrite + 25% fine pearlite
 Properties : Y.S. – 300 to 350 Mpa
UTS - 400 to 450 Mpa
El - 26 – 30
Low carbon steels – 0.1% C
 Structure : Mainly ferrite + small amount pearlite
 Properties : YS - 200–300 mpa, UTS - 300–370 mpa
elongation 28–40%
 Very good ductility, used as cold rolled sheets in
automobile and white goods industry
Demands on materials of construction

 Higher strength
 Improved toughness down to cryogenic
temperatures
 Resistance to corrosion by a wide variety of
chemicals and corrosive media.
 High temperature oxidation resistance
 Resistance to creep at high temperatures
 Higher strength : weight ratio
 Wear and erosion resistant
 Should be weldable
 Mechanisms for improving
strength and toughness
Strength / hardness improved by :
 Solid solution hardening
 Dispersion of second phase
 Phase transformation
 Precipitation hardening – carbides / intermetallic
compounds
 Ageing ( time dependent precipitation hardening )
 Work hardening
High strength / weight ratio:
 Titanium – As strong as steel half the weight
 Aluminium – 1/ 3 the weight half the strength.
Age hardening Aircraft alloys nearly as strong as steel
Toughness improved by :
 Grain refinement / fine grain size
 Low impurity level
 Austenite phase – promoted by Nickel, Manganese etc.
Martensite formation

For carbon steels very fast cooling rates

required to form Martensite
 3 deg C / sec – Fine pearlite
 35 deg C / sec - Very fine pearlite +
martensite
 140 deg C / sec – martensite
 Effect of alloying additions

 Alloying elements such as Ni, Cr, Mn, Si, Mo & V shift the
nose of the C-C-T curve to the right. Exception Cobalt
which shifts it to left
 This is because they slow down growth of pearlite. Eg -
0.5% Mo slows growth rate X 100
 Martensite can thus be formed at much slower cooling rates
 In a Ni-Cr-Mo low alloy steel cooling rate of
8 deg C / sec – Full martensite
0.3 deg / sec – Bainite + martensite
0.02 deg / sec – Pearlite
Note : Alloy elements do not affect the hardness of the
Martensite they only affect the ease with which Martensite
forms
High strength low alloy structural steels

 Carbon in same range as mild steels 0.15 – 0.25%

 Low amounts of alloying elements Mo, Cr, Cu, Ni etc
added eg. weathering steels to IS: 11587
 Structure accicular ferrite and bainite or ferrite and
tempered martensite
 Sronger and tougher than pearlitic steels with higher
strength
 Hardenability is increased which affects weldability

YS 400-700 MPa
UTS 500-800 MPa
Elongation 18-25%
 Grain size and its effects
Grain size significantly influences the properties of a steel.
Finer the grain size higher the strength and toughness
The original or recrystallized austenite grain size determines the
ferrite and pearlite grain size.
ASTM grain size No = 2n-1 grains / sq inch viewed at 100 X mag

Critical temperatures for Carbon steels

 A1 – Eutectoid temperature during
cooling ( Ar 1 ) heating ( Ac 1 ) Acm
 A3 – Temp of the F+A to A phase A3
boundary and is a function of
carbon content
 Acm – Temp of the A+C to A phase
boundary and again a function A1
of carbon content
 Micro – alloyed HSLA steels

 Fine dispersion of alloy carbides results in strengthening by

precipitation hardening
 Small amounts of carbide forming elements eg. Nb, V, Ti etc added
Total amount 0.20% max as such called Micro-alloyed steels
 Controlled rolling at low finish roll temperatures results in very fine
grain size ASTM 12 – 14. Also improves strength.
 Range of medium and high tensile steel developed to give improved
strength and toughness without impairing weldability. Covered by
IS:8500 - 1991
 Gives comparitively lower elongation but better toughness than low
alloy HSLA steels

 Properties : UTS 600 – 650 MPa

YS 400 – 500 MPa
Elongation 20 – 22 %
 Properties of typical Micro-alloyed steels
Grade / Trade %C % Mn % Si % MA YS UTS
name MPa MPa

ASTM A633 0.20 1.50 0.50 0.05 Nb 350 min 600 min
Gr C

SAILMA 410 0.25 1.50 0.50 Nb+V+Ti 410 min 540 - 660
=0.20

SAILMA 450 0.25 1.50 0.50 Nb+V+Ti 450 min 570 - 720
=0.20

SAILMA 450HI 0.20 1.50 0.50 Nb+V+Ti 450 min 570 – 720
=0.20 CVN = 19.6J
Min at – 20C

TISTEN 60 0.20 1.80 0.50 0.20 440 min 590 min

 Welded & higher strength structures

Introduction of welded structures implied

 High heat input of the welding arc / heat source and
influence of arc atmosphere
 Solidification of the molten filler metal and fused portion of
base metal into a separate weld zone
 Parent metal on both sides of the weld affected by the weld
thermal cycle – Heat affected zone ( HAZ )
 Metallurgical effects on both reheating and cooling

Introduction of higher strength steels to reduce weight and

cost of structure
 Alloying elements added to develop strength
 Lead to more complex metallurgical changes
Weldability of Steels
 Weldability
 Weldability is defined as the Macrograph of a weld joint &
capacity of a metal to be HAZ
welded under the
fabrication conditions
imposed, into a suitable
designed structure, and to
perform satisfactorily in the
intended service

 Weldability is the ease with

which a metal can be
welded to give the required
service

 Weldability is the number of

problems you face to weld a
material
Metallurgical zones in a typical weld

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 Weldability problems

 Cracking – In the weld – solidification cracks

-- micro-fissuring
- In the HAZ – Hydrogen cracking
- Liquation cracks
 Porosity
 Oxidation of reactive metals
 Reduced joint strength – In the weld
-- In the HAZ
 Reduced corrosion resistance
 Problems in welding structural steels

Hydrogen induced cold

cracking ( HICC )
 HAZ cracking
 Delayed cracking

Hot cracking
 Solidification cracking
 Centerline cracking
 Due to high S & P levels
which produce low melting
films at grain boundaries
 Reduced by higher Mn
content
Solidification cracking

Steels having unfavourable Mn-S ratio

are prone to such cracking.
 Lamellar Tearing

 Is generally associated with

welding of fairly large highly
restrained structures
 Occurs predominantly in
plate material
 Due to presence of non –
metallic inclusions
 Difficult to detect by NDT
techniques. Maybe assessed
by STRA of tensile test in
short transverse direction
 Cracks can occur in parent
plate / HAZ and generally
run parallel to the plate
surface
 Lamellar tearing

Microstructure susceptible to Lamellar tearing near a C-Mn

lamellar tearing steel weld

Prevention: Use joint designs that minimise transverse

constraint & butter with a softer layer
Hydrogen cracking
Mechanism of HAZ cracking

3 factors causing Hydrogen induced cold cracking

 A brittle martensitic micro-structure produced by rapid
cooling in HAZ area heated above A1 line
 Presence of Hydrogen from the welding process

 Presence of contractional and residual stresses

Mechanism
 Hydrogen absorbed by the weld pool diffuses to the fusion
zone and HAZ as the weld solidifies and cools
 Forms pockets of molecular hydrogen which exerts
additional stress on the susceptible microstructure
 In combination with existing stresses causes cracking
generally in HAZ but can also take place in multi-pass welds
 Factors influencing HICC
 Presence of Hydrogen – Process
 Presence of stress – Weld design
 Formation of hard microstructure
Chemical composition ( intrinsic to material )
Cooling rate - Combined thickness of joint
- Heat input of process
- Degree of preheat if any and inter-pass temp

Chemical composition expressed in terms of carbon equivalent

C.E. is the measure of the susceptibility of the material to form a
hard microstructure ( martensite )
Thus Carbon Equivalent has become synonymous with Weldability
of a steel

C.E. = %C + % Mn / 6 + % (Cr + Mo + V ) / 5 + % (NI + Cu) / 15

Combined thickness of joints
Butt welds & corner welds of
equal thickness - T1 + T2

Butt welds & corner welds of

unequal thickness
Av of T1 over 75 mm + T2

Fillet welds – T1 + T2 + T3

Directly opposed simultaneous

fillet welds – T1 + T2 + T3 / 2

Two rods - D1 + D2 / 2
 Heat input during welding

 Is calculated from the Arc energy divided by the

welding speed

Arc voltage X Welding current

----------------------------------------------- kJ / mm
Welding speed ( mm / sec ) X 1000

 For other welding process divide by following

factors
SAW ( single wire ) - 0.8
GTAW - 1.2
GMAW - 1.0
Hydrogen levels for different
processes and consumables

 Scale A : Above 15 ml / 100 gm diffusible hydrogen

content in weld – Rutile electrodes, LH electrodes which
have been exposed to moisture
 Scale B : 10 – 15 ml / 100 gm diffusible hydrogen
content - LH electrodes redried at 250 C
 Scale C : 5 – 10 ml / 100 gm diffusible hydrogen content
– Gas Metal arc welding ( MIG ) process, LH electrodes
redried at 350 C
 Scale D : below 5 ml / 100 gm diffusible hydrogen
content – Gas Tungsten Arc welding ( TIG ) process, LH
electrodes redried at 450 C
Practical requirements of Welding Engineer

Given a steel of known composition or C.E.

 Upto what combined thickness can be welded with
normal rutile electrodes, without danger of HAZ
cracking
 Upto what thickness can be welded using Low
Hydrogen electrodes
 Upto what thickness can be welded using Low
Hydrogen electrodes properly redried as per
manufacturers recommendations
 Above what thickness pre-heat is required and
degree of pre-heat.
 Is it necessary to impose any restrictions on heat
input by the welding process and parameters used
 Combined influence of base-metal thickness
and carbon content on weldability

Both Preheat &

Highest PWHT required
carbon
content
of carbon Only Preheat is
steel required
base
metal %
No Preheat &
PWHT required

Greatest single thickness of carbon

steel base metal
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IS 9595 : 1996 recommendations for welding of
carbon and carbon – manganese steels

 Annexure F gives detailed guidance on pre-heat

requirements and inter- pass temperatures for
avoiding hydrogen induced cold cracking
considering the following factors
- Carbon equivalent of steel
- Combined thickness to be welded
- Heat input of process in kJ / mm
- Hydrogen level of process in Scales A to D
 Simplified table for Fillet welds
 Detailed graphs for other conditions
Covers steels under IS : 2062 - 1992 and IS 8500 –
1991 of C.E. upto 0.53
 Acknowledgements
We gratefully acknowledge the contributions of
the following faculty members for developing
this module

 Mr.Soumya Sarkar
 Mr.R.Banerjee
 Mr.A.A.Deshpande
 Dr.Shaju Albert
THANK YOU