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Metals – Structure
and Weldability
Contents
Structure of Metals
Structure of Steels
Weldability of Steels
A Metallurgical Process
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Why should Welding Technologists
learn metallurgy
Welding is mostly done for fabrication of metals
and alloys
General Engineering
Construction - Earthmoving equipment, cranes
Infrastructure - Buildings , bridges , roads, flyovers, tunnels
Projects -, refineries, fertilizers, steel plants, chemical &
petrochemical plants
Automotive sector - 2- wheelers, cars, trucks, buses
Railways - Coaches, locomotives, wagons
Shipbuilding and aircraft
Power plants & pressure vessels
Consumer durable - Refrigerators, ACs, Almirahs
Defence - Tanks, APCs, Aircraft, Rockets
Food processing - Dairy, brewery, cooking, freezing eqpt.
Materials of Construction
All metals and alloys are crystalline bodies with their atoms
arranged in regular order, which is periodically repeated in
three directions
They distinguish them from amorphous bodies whose atoms
are in random order
Metals obtained by conventional methods are polycrystalline
bodies, consisting of great number of fine crystals differently
oriented with respect to one another
All typical properties of metals can be explained by the fact
that they contain highly mobile electrons.
Common Properties of Metals
Alpha iron – upto 912 deg C Gamma iron – 912 – 1394 deg C
Delta iron – 1394 – 1539 deg C
HCP- Hexagonal Close packed
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Single Crystal
Unit Cell
Polycrystal
Grain
boundary
Crystal boundary or
Grain boundary
In these regions there exists a film of metals, some
three atoms thick, in which atoms do not conform to
any pattern
This crystal boundary is of amorphous nature
Metallic bond acts within and across the crystal
boundary and therefore not necessarily an area of
weakness
Impurity atoms has got tendency to segregate at
grain boundary or crystal boundary.
Depending on the nature of impurity atom they may
strengthen or weaken the boundary
Grain Boundary
Defects in Metals - Dislocations
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Phases in steel
Ferrite:
solid solution of carbon in α-
iron; Maximum solubility of C:
0.022% at 727°C
Austenite: Ferrite or
solid solution of carbon in γ- α iron
iron; Maximum solubility of C:
2.11% at 1146°C
Delta(δ) ferrite:
solid solution of carbon in delta
iron; Maximum solubility of C:
0.09% at 1495°C Austenite or
γ iron
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Phases in steel
Graphite:
crystalline form of carbon having a
hexagonal crystal structure. Only
forms on very slow cooling
Pearlite:
Lamellar structure consisting of
alternate bands of Ferrite and
Cementite
Pearlite
Cementite (Fe3C):
an inter-metallic compound having a
complex orthorhombic structure; C -
6.67% by wt. Even though this is a
meta-stable phase, carbon is almost
always present in this form in steels.
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Fe-C phase diagram
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Phase transformation reactions
in steel
Peritectic reaction
(1495°C)
Liquid Fe + δ-Ferrite =
Austenite
Eutectic reaction (1146°C)
Liquid Fe = Austenite +
Cementite (Eutectic
mixture of austenite and
cementite is called
Ledeburite)
Eutectoid reaction (727°C)
Austenite = Ferrite +
Cementite (Eutectic
mixture of Ferrite and
Cementite called Pearlite)
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Phase transformation reactions
in steel..
Micro-structures of
slowly cooled steels
Eutectoid steel
( 0.77% C ) – fully
pearlitic
Hypo-eutectoid steel
(<0.77% C ) – Pro-
eutectoid ferrite +
Pearlite
Hyper-eutectoid steel
(>0.77% C ) – Pro-
eutectoid cementite
+ Pearlite
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Effect of composition & cooling rate on
microstructure
Faster cooling
V. Fine pearlite 35 – 40 Rc
Fast cooling
Fine pearlite 20 – 25 Rc
( air cooled )
Slow cooling
Coarse pearlite 5 – 10 Rc
( furnace cooled )
Cooling rate
Temperature – Time – Transformation
T-T-T Diagrams
Martensite
Martensite : Martensite
Very hard and brittle phase.
Hardness Rc 38 44 50 57 60 63 65
Bainite
Formed in alloyed steels Bainite + accicular ferrite
when austenite is cooled
rapidly passed the nose of
the C-curve .
Extremely fine mixture of
ferrite + carbide but not
lamellar like pearlite
Formed between 500 – 220
C Upper Bainite or lower
Bainite depending on
temp.
Has higher hardness and
toughness than pearlite
A variety of microstructures & hence properties can be
obtained in steel by controlled cooling
Mild steel for structural purposes
Higher strength
Improved toughness down to cryogenic
temperatures
Resistance to corrosion by a wide variety of
chemicals and corrosive media.
High temperature oxidation resistance
Resistance to creep at high temperatures
Higher strength : weight ratio
Wear and erosion resistant
Should be weldable
Mechanisms for improving
strength and toughness
Strength / hardness improved by :
Solid solution hardening
Dispersion of second phase
Phase transformation
Precipitation hardening – carbides / intermetallic
compounds
Ageing ( time dependent precipitation hardening )
Work hardening
High strength / weight ratio:
Titanium – As strong as steel half the weight
Aluminium – 1/ 3 the weight half the strength.
Age hardening Aircraft alloys nearly as strong as steel
Toughness improved by :
Grain refinement / fine grain size
Low impurity level
Austenite phase – promoted by Nickel, Manganese etc.
Martensite formation
Alloying elements such as Ni, Cr, Mn, Si, Mo & V shift the
nose of the C-C-T curve to the right. Exception Cobalt
which shifts it to left
This is because they slow down growth of pearlite. Eg -
0.5% Mo slows growth rate X 100
Martensite can thus be formed at much slower cooling rates
In a Ni-Cr-Mo low alloy steel cooling rate of
8 deg C / sec – Full martensite
0.3 deg / sec – Bainite + martensite
0.02 deg / sec – Pearlite
Note : Alloy elements do not affect the hardness of the
Martensite they only affect the ease with which Martensite
forms
High strength low alloy structural steels
YS 400-700 MPa
UTS 500-800 MPa
Elongation 18-25%
Grain size and its effects
Grain size significantly influences the properties of a steel.
Finer the grain size higher the strength and toughness
The original or recrystallized austenite grain size determines the
ferrite and pearlite grain size.
ASTM grain size No = 2n-1 grains / sq inch viewed at 100 X mag
ASTM A633 0.20 1.50 0.50 0.05 Nb 350 min 600 min
Gr C
SAILMA 410 0.25 1.50 0.50 Nb+V+Ti 410 min 540 - 660
=0.20
SAILMA 450 0.25 1.50 0.50 Nb+V+Ti 450 min 570 - 720
=0.20
SAILMA 450HI 0.20 1.50 0.50 Nb+V+Ti 450 min 570 – 720
=0.20 CVN = 19.6J
Min at – 20C
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Weldability problems
Hot cracking
Solidification cracking
Centerline cracking
Due to high S & P levels
which produce low melting
films at grain boundaries
Reduced by higher Mn
content
Solidification cracking
Mechanism
Hydrogen absorbed by the weld pool diffuses to the fusion
zone and HAZ as the weld solidifies and cools
Forms pockets of molecular hydrogen which exerts
additional stress on the susceptible microstructure
In combination with existing stresses causes cracking
generally in HAZ but can also take place in multi-pass welds
Factors influencing HICC
Presence of Hydrogen – Process
Presence of stress – Weld design
Formation of hard microstructure
Chemical composition ( intrinsic to material )
Cooling rate - Combined thickness of joint
- Heat input of process
- Degree of preheat if any and inter-pass temp
Fillet welds – T1 + T2 + T3
Two rods - D1 + D2 / 2
Heat input during welding
Mr.Soumya Sarkar
Mr.R.Banerjee
Mr.A.A.Deshpande
Dr.Shaju Albert
THANK YOU