PPT MFG Chapter04 Final

SI EDITION
MANUFACTURING
Engineering and Technology
Seventh Edition
CHAPTER
4
METAL ALLOYS: THEIR STRUCTURE AND
STRENGTHENING BY HEAT TREATMENT
Serope Kalpakjian
Steven R. Schmid ALWAYS LEARNING Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
Chapter Outline
1. Introduction
2. Structure of Alloys
3. Phase Diagrams
4. The Iron–Carbon System
5. The Iron–Iron-carbide Phase Diagram and the Development of
Microstructures in Steels
6. Cast Irons
7. Heat Treatment of Ferrous Alloys
8. Hardenability of Ferrous Alloys
9. Heat Treatment of Nonferrous Alloys and Stainless Steels
10. Case Hardening
11. Annealing
12. Heat-treating Furnaces and Equipment
13. Design Considerations for Heat Treating
Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Introduction
 Behavior of metals and alloys depend on their
composition, structure, and processing history and
heat treatment
 Improves mechanical properties by heat treatment
which modifies microstructures

Introduction
 Outline of topics

Structure of Alloys
 Atoms are all of the same type, except for the
presence of rare impurity atoms
 Commercially pure metals are used for various
purposes
 An alloy is composed of two or more chemical
elements, at least one of which is a metal

Structure of Alloys:
Solid Solutions
 To describe alloys we have solute and solvent
 Solute is the minor element that is added to the
solvent, which is the major element
 The alloy is called a solid solution
Substitutional Solid Solutions

 Solute atoms can replace solvent atoms and form
a substitutional solid solution

Solid Solutions
Substitutional Solid Solutions
 2 conditions required to form complete
substitutional solid solutions:
1. 2 metals must have similar crystal structures
2. Difference in their atomic radii should be less
than 15%

Solid Solutions
Interstitial Solid Solutions
 Solute atom is smaller than solvent atom
 Each solute atom occupy an interstitial position;
process form interstitial solid solution
 2 conditions for forming interstitial solutions:
1. Solvent atom have more than one valence
electron
2. Solute atom atomic radius less than 59% of the
solvent atom
Intermetallic Compounds
 Intermetallic compounds are complex structures
 Consist of 2 metals where solute atoms are
present among solvent atoms in certain
proportions
 Typical examples are the aluminides of titanium ,
nickel and iron

Two-phase Systems
 Two or more elements in a solid state form a
single homogeneous solid phase
 Elements are uniformly distributed throughout the
solid mass
 Such a system is called a two-phase system
 Phase defined as a physically distinct and
homogeneous portion in a material

Two-phase Systems
 Example is having lead particles (roughly
spherical in shape) dispersed throughout the
structure
 Alloying is strengthening alloys and controlling
their properties

Phase Diagrams
 Pure metals have clearly defined melting or
freezing points
 Solidification takes place at a constant
temperature
 When the temperature of a molten metal is
reduced to the freezing point, the energy of the
latent heat of solidification is given off while the
temperature remains constant.

Phase Diagrams
 There will be a change in density during cooling
of pure metals

Phase Diagrams
 Alloys solidify over a range of temperatures
 Solidification begins when the temperature of the
molten metal drops below the liquidus
 Completed when the temperature reaches the
solidus
 Phase diagram shows the relationships among
temperature, composition, and phases present in a
particular alloy system at equilibrium

Phase Diagrams
 Constitutional indicates the relationships among
the structure, the composition, and the physical
makeup of the alloy
 Types of phase diagrams:
1. Complete solid solutions
2. Eutectics
3. Eutectoids

Phase Diagrams
 The completely solidified alloy in the phase
diagram shown is a solid solution

Phase Diagrams
 The figure shows how zinc affects the mechanical
properties of the alloy

Phase Diagrams
 The lowest temperature at which the alloy is still
completely liquid is known as the eutectic point
 Also the point at which the liquid solution
decomposes into the components alpha and beta
 Eutectic points are important to prevent thermal
damage to parts during joining

The Iron–Carbon System
 The figure shows iron–iron-carbide phase
diagram

Ferrite
 Alpha ferrite denoted α-ferrite or ferrite
 It is a solid solution of bcc iron
 Delta ferrite (δ-ferrite) is stable only at very high
temperatures and is of no practical significance in
engineering
 Ferrite is soft and ductile
 It is magnetic from room temperature to 768°C,
Curie temperature
Austenite
 Within a certain temperature range, iron
undergoes a polymorphic transformation from
a bcc to a fcc structure,
 Becomes gamma iron (γ-iron) or austenite
 Austenite is denser than ferrite and important in
heat treatment
 Possesses good formability

Austenite

Cementite
 Right boundary represents cementite, also called
carbide
 Cementite is very hard and brittle intermetallic
compound
 Has a significant influence on the properties of
steels

The Iron–Iron-carbide Phase Diagram and the
Development of Microstructures in Steels
 The figure shows iron–iron-carbide phase

diagram

 Microstructures developed depend on the carbon

content, the amount of plastic deformation
(working), and the method of heat treatment
 Reason for slow cooling is to maintain
equilibrium; higher rates of cooling are employed
in heat treating
 Austenite is transformed into alpha ferrite (bcc)
and cementite

 Eutectoid reaction, is where at a certain

temperature, a single solid phase (austenite) is
transformed into two other solid phases
 Structure of eutectoid steel is called pearlite

Development of Microstructures in Steels:
Effects of Alloying Elements in Iron
 Effect of alloying elements is to shift the

eutectoid temperature and eutectoid composition
 They shift other phase boundaries as well
 Eutectoid temperature may be raised or lowered
from 727°C, depending on alloying element
 Lowering the eutectoid temperature means
increasing the austenite range
 Alloying element is known as an austenite
former

Cast Irons
 Cast iron refers to a family of ferrous alloys
composed of iron, carbon and silicon
 Classified according to their solidification
morphology from the eutectic temperature:
1. Gray cast iron
2. Ductile cast iron
3. White cast iron
4. Malleable iron
5. Compacted graphite iron
Cast Irons
 Cementite is not stable; it is metastable

Cast Irons
 Graphitization can be controlled and accelerated
by modifying the composition and the rate of
cooling and by the addition of silicon
Gray Cast Iron

 Graphite exists largely in the
form of flakes

Cast Irons
Gray Cast Iron

 3 types of gray cast iron are ferritic, pearlitic,
and martensitic
 Each has different properties and applications due
to structures
 Ferritic gray iron structure consists of graphite
flakes in an alpha-ferrite matrix
 Pearlitic gray iron has graphite in a matrix of
pearlite

Cast Irons
Ductile (Nodular) Iron

 Graphite is in a nodular or spheroid form
 Ductile and shock resistant
 Ductile iron can be made
ferritic or pearlitic
by heat treatment

Cast Irons
Malleable Iron
 Obtained by annealing white cast iron in an
atmosphere of carbon monoxide and carbon
dioxide
 Cementite decomposes
(dissociates) into
iron and graphite
 Graphite exists as clusters
or rosettes in a ferrite or
pearlite matrix
Heat Treatment of Ferrous Alloys
 Microstructures can be modified by heat-

treatment techniques using controlled heating
and cooling of the alloys at various rates
 Treatments induce phase transformations that
greatly influence such mechanical properties
 Heat-treatment processes are annealing,
quenching, and tempering

Pearlite
 Fine pearlite is where ferrite and cementite
lamellae in the pearlite structure of the eutectoid
steel are thin and closely packed
 Coarse pearlite is thick and widely spaced

Spheroidite
 Subcritical annealing is when pearlite is heated
to just below the eutectoid temperature for a
period of time
 Spheroidites are less
conducive to stress
concentration because of
their rounded shapes

Bainite
 Bainite is a very fine microstructure consisting of
ferrite and cementit having a different
morphology
 Produced in steels with alloying elements and at
cooling rates that are higher than those required
for transformation to pearlite

Martensite
 As austenite is cooled at a high rate, fcc structure
is transformed into a body-centered tetragonal
(bct) structure
 Does not have as many slip systems, thus lacks
toughness and
limited use

Retained Austenite
 When alloy temperature is not quenched
sufficiently low, only a portion of the structure is
transformed to martensite
 The rest is retained austenite which can cause
dimensional instability and cracking
 Lower the hardness and strength of the alloy

Tempered Martensite
 Tempered to improve its mechanical properties
 Tempering is a heating process to reduce
hardness and improve toughness
 With increasing
tempering time and
temperature, the hardness
of tempered martensite
decreases

Heat Treatment of Ferrous Alloys:
Time–Temperature-transformation Diagrams
 Transformation from austenite to pearlite is

shown in isothermal transformation (IT)
diagrams, or time–temperature-transformation
(TTT) diagrams


 Differences in hardness and toughness are shown

 Fine pearlite is harder and less ductile than coarse

pearlite
 Effects of various percentages of carbon,
cementite, and pearlite on other mechanical
properties of steels are shown

Hardenability of Ferrous Alloys
 Capability of an alloy to be hardened by heat

treatment is called its hardenability
 A measure of the depth of hardness
 While hardness is the resistance of a material to
indentation or scratching

Hardenability of Ferrous Alloys:
The End-quench Hardenability Test
 Alloy heated to the proper temperature to form
100% austenite and then quenched directly at one
end with a stream of water at 24°C is called
austenitized

 The effects of cooling rates for one end that is
quenching is shown

 Greater the depth to which the hardness
penetrates, greater the hardenability of the alloy
 Small variations in composition and in grain size
can affect the shape of hardenability curves

Quenching Media
 Cooling rate of the alloy (severity of quench) in
decreasing order is:
1. Agitated brine
2. Still water
3. Still oil
4. Cold gas
5. Still air

Quenching Media
 Heated metal may form a vapor blanket due to
the watervapor bubbles that form when water
boils at the metal–water interface
 Blanket will creates a barrier to heat conduction
 Polymer quenchants is used for ferrous and
nonferrous alloy quenching

Heat Treatment of Nonferrous Alloys
and Stainless Steels
 Nonferrous alloys and stainless steels cannot be
heat treated by the techniques used for ferrous
alloys
 Alloys do not undergo phase transformations
 Heat-treatable structure are hardened and
strengthened by precipitation hardening
 Process where small particles of a different phase
(precipitates) are uniformly dispersed in the
matrix of the original phase

and Stainless Steels
 3 stages are involved in precipitation hardening

and Stainless Steels: Solution Treatment
 In solution treatment, the alloy is heated to

within the solid-solution kappa phase and then
cooled rapidly by quenching

Heat Treatment of Nonferrous Alloys and Stainless
Steels: Precipitation Hardening
 Alloy is reheated to an intermediate temperature

for a period of time and precipitation takes place
 Increase in strength is due to increased resistance
to dislocation movement in the region of the
precipitates
Aging
 Precipitation process it is also called aging,
 Property improvement is known as age hardening

Aging
 When carried out above room temperature, it is
called artificial aging
 Hardening of aluminum alloys over a period of
time at room temperature is called natural aging
 Natural aging can be slowed by refrigerating the
quenched alloy (cryogenic treatment)

Aging
 An aged alloy can be used only up to a certain
maximum temperature in service
 But an over-aged part has better dimensional
stability

Maraging
 Maraging is a process where one or more
intermetallic compounds are precipitated in a
matrix of low-carbon martensite
 Hardening by maraging does not depend on the
cooling rate

Case Hardening
 Some examples of case-hardening processes:
a) Carburizing (gas, liquid, and pack carburizing);
b) Carbonitriding;
c) Cyaniding;
d) Nitriding;
e) Boronizing;
f) Flame hardening;
g) Induction hardening; and
h) Laser-beam hardening.
Case Hardening

Case Hardening

Case Hardening
 Laser beams and electron beams are used
effectively to harden both small and large
surfaces
 Capital costs can be high but the depth of the
case-hardened layer is low
 Decarburization is where alloys containing
carbon lose carbon from their surfaces as a result
of heat treatment

Annealing
 Annealing is the restoration of a cold-worked or
heat-treated alloy to its original properties
 Increase ductility reduce hardness and strength
 Annealing process consists of:
1. Heating the workpiece to a specific range of
temperature in a furnace
2. Holding temperature for a period of time
(soaking)
3. Cooling the workpiece in air or in a furnace
Annealing
 Annealing process is carried out in a controlled
atmosphere or lower temperatures to minimize
surface oxidation
 Annealing temperature may be higher than the
material’s recrystallization
temperature depending on
the degree of cold work
 Full annealing is annealing
of ferrous alloys

Annealing
 Structure obtained through full annealing is
coarse pearlite, which is soft and ductile and has
small, uniform grains
 To avoid excessive softness from the annealing of
steels, the cooling cycle is done completely in
still air, called normalizing
 Spheroidizing annealing
improves the cold workability
and machinability of steels

Annealing
Process Annealing
 Process annealing is where workpiece is annealed
to restore its ductility
Stress-relief Annealing
 Stress-relief annealing is to reduce residual
stresses
 Stress relieving promotes dimensional stability
and reduces the tendency to stress-corrosion
cracking
Annealing
Tempering
 Tempering or drawing is used in steel to reduce
brittleness, increase ductility and toughness, and
reduce residual stresses
 Temper embrittlement is
caused by the segregation of
impurities along the grain
boundaries

Annealing
Austempering
 Heated steel is quenched from austenitizing
temperature rapidly to avoid formation of ferrite
or pearlite
 Substituted for conventional quenching and
tempering
 To reduce the cracking and distortion during
quenching and improve ductility and toughness
while maintaining hardness

Annealing
Martempering (Marquenching)
 Steel is quenched from the austenitizing
temperature in a hot-fluid medium
 Next held at that temperature until the
temperature is uniform and cooled at a moderate
rate
 In modified martempering, the quenching
temperature is lower and cooling rate is higher

Heat-treating Furnaces and Equipment
 2 basic types of furnaces for heat treating: batch

furnaces and continuous furnaces
 They consume energy and insulation and
efficiency are important design considerations
Batch Furnaces
 Parts to be heat treated are loaded in individual
batches

Continuous Furnaces
 Parts to be heat treated move continuously
through the furnace on conveyors
Salt-bath Furnaces
 Due to high heating rates and better control of
uniformity of temperature, salt baths are used

Fluidized Beds
 Dry, fine, and loose solid particles are heated and
suspended in a chamber by an upward flow of hot
gas at various speeds
Induction Heating
 Part is heated rapidly by the electromagnetic field
generated by an induction coil which induces
eddy currents in the part


Design Considerations for Heat Treating
 Heat treating is avoiding problems such as

cracking, distortion and nonuniformity of the
properties
 Sharp internal or external corners is avoidedto
reduce high level of stresses and cause cracking
 Part should have its uniform thicknesses
 Large surfaces with thin cross sections are likely
to warp

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SI EDITION

Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Substitutional Solid Solutions

a substitutional solid solution

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Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

 The figure shows iron–iron-carbide phase

Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

 Microstructures developed depend on the carbon

Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

 Eutectoid reaction, is where at a certain

Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

 Effect of alloying elements is to shift the

Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Gray Cast Iron

Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Gray Cast Iron

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Ductile (Nodular) Iron

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 Microstructures can be modified by heat-

Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

 Transformation from austenite to pearlite is

Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

 Differences in hardness and toughness are shown

Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

 Fine pearlite is harder and less ductile than coarse

Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

 Capability of an alloy to be hardened by heat

Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

 In solution treatment, the alloy is heated to