SI EDITION

MANUFACTURING
Engineering and Technology
Seventh Edition

Chapter II
ENGINEERING MATERIALS PROPERTIES

Serope Kalpakjian
Steven R. Schmid ALWAYS LEARNING Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
 Outline
2

1. Introduction
2. The Crystal Structure of Metals
3. Deformation and Strength of Single Crystals
4. Grains and Grain Boundaries
5. Mechanical Behavior of Materials
6. Physical Properties of Materials
7. Metal and Alloys
8. Polymers
9. Ceramics
10. Composite Materials
 Introduction
3

 Different metals behave differently under different

situations
 We would need to study the atomic structure of metals,
which is the arrangement of the atoms within the metals
 This allows us to predict and evaluate properties, thus
we can make appropriate selections of metals
 Introduction
4
 Introduction
5

(5)

(1) (2) (3) (4) (10)

(8) (9)

(6) (7)
 The Crystal Structure of Metals
6

 Metals solidify from a molten state and the atoms

arrange themselves into crystals
 Atomic arrangement is called crystal structure or
crystalline structure
 Smallest group of atoms showing the lattice structure
is known as a unit cell
 3 basic atomic arrangements in metals:
1. Body-centered cubic (bcc)
2. Face-centered cubic (fcc)
3. Hexagonal close-packed (hcp)
 The Crystal Structure of Metals
7

-34300 3000K

1400K
-34350
(eV)
(eV)

300K
Energy

-34400
Energy

-34450

-34500
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000
Num ber of M D steps
 The Crystal Structure of Metals
8

 Distance between the atoms is on the order of 0.1 nm

 Models shown are known as hard-ball models

Single crystal with

Hard-ball model Unit cell
many unit cells

BCC Structure
 The Crystal Structure of Metals
9

FCC Structure

Single crystal with

Hard-ball model Unit cell
many unit cells
HCP Structure

Single crystal with

Unit cell many unit cells
 Deformation and Strength of Single Crystals
10

 When a single crystal is subjected to an external force,

it returns to its original shape when the force is
removed (elastic deformation)
 When force increased, the crystal does not return to its
original shape when the force is removed (plastic
deformation or permanent deformation)
 2 basic mechanisms:
a) Slipping
b) Twinning
 Deformation and Strength of Single Crystals
11

Slip System
 Bcc crystal has 48 slip systems
high shear stress, good strength and moderate ductility
 (Lithium, Sodium, Potassium, etc.)
 Fcc crystal has 12 slip systems,
low shear stress, moderate strength and good
ductility
 (Aluminium, Copper, Gold, etc.)
 Hcp crystal has 3 slip systems,
low slip, brittle at room temperature
 (Titanium, Zinc, Zirconium, etc.)
 Grains and Grain Boundaries
12

 When molten metal solidify, crystals begin to form at

various locations and have random orientations
 These crystals then grows into a crystalline structure or
grain
 Number and size of the grains depends on the rate at
which nucleation takes place
 Surfaces that separate individual grains are called
grain boundaries
 Grains and Grain Boundaries: Grain Size
13

 Grain size will influence the mechanical properties

 Grain size number, n,

is related by

n 1
N 2
N = number of grains
 Grains and Grain Boundaries: Grain Size
14

Example 1.1
A paper clip is made of wire that is 120 mm long and 0.75
mm in diameter, with an ASTM grain size of 9. Calculate
the number of grains in the paper clip.
Solution
The volume of the paper clip is
 2 
V  d l  (0.75)2 (120)  53.0 mm 3
4 4
Total number of grains is

  
No. grains  53.0 mm 3 185,000 grains/mm 3  9.81 million
 Mechanical Behaviors of Materials
15

 A variety of metallic and nonmetallic materials is now

available with various mechanical behaviors:
1. Tension
2. Compression
3. Torsion
4. Bending
5. Hardness (Brinell-HB, Rockwell-HR, Vickers-HV)
6. Fatigue
7. Creep
8. Impact
9. Failure and Fracture of Materials in Manufacturing and Service
10. Residual Stresses (Prince Rupert’s drop)
 Mechanical Behaviors of Materials
16
 Physical Properties of Materials
17

 Important criterion in material selection is consideration

of physical properties:
1. Density (strength-to-weight ratio/ stiffness-to-weight ratio)
2. Melting point
3. Specific heat
4. Thermal conductivity and expansion
5. Electrical and magnetic properties
6. Resistance to oxidation and corrosion
 Physical Properties of Materials
18
 Physical Properties of Materials
19
 Metal and Alloys: Ferrous metals
20

 Ferrous metals and alloys contain iron as their base

 3 basic materials used in iron:
 Iron ore, limestone, and coke

 Limestone reacts chemically with impurities acting like

a flux that causes the impurities to melt at low
temperature thus it is used to remove impurities from the
molten iron > forms slag
 Coke is obtained from special grades of bituminous coal
that are heated in vertical ovens to high temperatures
and then cooled with water
 Metal and Alloys: Ferrous metals
21

 The previous 3 raw materials are dumped into the top

of a blast furnace
 An operation called charging the furnace
 Metal and Alloys: NonFerrous metals
22

 Nonferrous metals and alloys cover a wide range from

metals to high-strength, high-temperature alloys:
1. Aluminum
2. Magnesium
3. Copper
4. Titanium
5. Zinc
 Metal and Alloys: NonFerrous metals
23
 Metal and Alloys: NonFerrous metals
24

 Aluminum (Al) and its alloys have high strength-to-

weight ratios, resistance to corrosion, high thermal and
electrical conductivities, non-toxicity and ease of
formability and machinability.

 However, the strength of

Al is only 1/3 of steel.

 Al production uses
bauxite, which contains
hydrous aluminum oxide
and various other oxides.
 Metal and Alloys: NonFerrous metals
25

 Magnesium (Mg) is the lightest metal and has good

vibration damping characteristics. Its alloys are used in
structural and nonstructural applications due to light
weight

 However, it is not sufficiently strong in its pure form.

Thus it is an alloying elements in various metals

 Magnesium alloys have good casting, forming, and

machining characteristics
 Metal and Alloys: NonFerrous metals
26

 Copper (Cu) and its alloys have properties similar to

aluminum and its alloys
 Best conductors of electricity and heat with good
corrosion resistance
 Its alloys can be processed easily by forming,
machining, casting, and joining techniques

 Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc

 Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin
 Metal and Alloys: NonFerrous metals
27
 Metal and Alloys: NonFerrous metals
28

 Titanium (Ti) is a metal with highest strength-to-weight

ratio and corrosion resistance at room and elevated
temperatures
 Metal and Alloys: NonFerrous metals
29

 Most precious metals are also called noble metals:

 Gold
 Soft and ductile and has good corrosion resistance at any
temperature

 Silver
 Ductile and has the highest electrical and thermal conductivity of
any metal

 Platinum
 Soft, ductile and good corrosion resistance
 Metal and Alloys: NonFerrous metals
30

 Shape-memory alloys, also called smart materials.

They return to their original shape upon heating after
being plastically deformed
 Can be used to generate motion and/or force in
temperature-sensitive actuators
 Reversible where shape can switch back and forth
repeatedly upon application and removal of heat.
 Metal and Alloys: NonFerrous metals
31

 Amorphous alloys, also called metallic glasses. It is

metal alloys which do not have a long-range crystalline
structure
 Have no grain boundaries and atoms are packed
randomly and tightly
 Amorphous structure obtained by rapid solidification of
a molten alloy
 Amorphous alloys has excellent corrosion resistance,
good ductility and high strength
Polymers: Introduction

 Plastics is a synonym for polymers (Antonym

 They have large molecules (macromolecules or giant
molecules)
 Due to unique and diverse properties, polymers have
replaced metallic components
 Advantages:
1. Low cost
2. Corrosion resistance
3. Low electrical and thermal conductivity
4. High strength-to-weight ratio
5. Ease of manufacturing
Polymers: Introduction

 Properties of polymers depend on

1. Structures of individual polymer molecules
2. Molecule shape and size
3. Arrangement of molecules
 Polymers are long-chain molecules that are formed
by polymerization
 Mer is the smallest repetitive unit
 Polymer means “many mers (or units)”
Polymers: Introduction
Polymers: Introduction
Polymers: Introduction
Polymers: Polymerization

 Monomers linked into polymers in repeating units to

make longer by polymerization reaction:
1. Condensation polymerization, polymers are produced by
bonding between two mers

2. Addition polymerization is where bonding takes place

without reaction by-products
Polymers: Polymerization

Linear Polymers
 Chainlike polymers are called linear polymers to sequential
structure
 A linear polymer may contain some branched and cross-linked
chains

Branched Polymers
 Properties of a polymer depend on type of monomers and their
arrangement in the molecular structure
 In branched polymers side-branch chains are attached to the
main chain during the synthesis
Polymers: Polymerization

Cross-linked Polymers
 Cross-linked polymers have adjacent chains linked by covalent
bonds
 Polymers with a cross-linked structure are called thermosets
plastics

Network Polymers
 Consist of spatial networks of three or more active covalent
bonds
Polymers: Polymerization

Copolymers and Terpolymers

 Repeating units in a polymer chain are all of the same
type is called a homopolymer
 Copolymers contain two types of polymers
 Terpolymers contain three types
Polymers: Crystallinity

 PMMA, polycarbonate, and polystyrene are amorphous

 Polymer chains exist without long-range order
 Crystalline regions in polymers are called crystallites
 Crystals are formed when the long molecules arrange
themselves in an orderly manner
Polymers: Crystallinity

Effects of Crystallinity
 Mechanical and physical properties of polymers are
influenced by the degree of crystallinity
 As crystallinity increases, polymers become stiffer,
harder, less ductile, more dense, less rubbery, and
more resistant to solvents and heat
Polymers: Thermoplastics

 When above the glass-transition temperature,

polymers become easier to form into desired shapes
 When the polymer is cooled, it returns to its original
hardness and strength; process is reversible
 These polymers are known as thermoplastics

 Thermoplastics behavior
depends on structure and
composition
 When applied stress is
increased, polycarbonate
eventually fractures
Polymers: Thermoplastics

Effects of Temperature
 When above Tg thermoplastic polymer becomes
leathery and rubbery
 At higher temperatures it
becomes a viscous fluid
 Viscosity also decreases
with increasing temperature
Polymers: Thermoset plastics

 Long-chain molecules in a polymer are cross-linked in a

three-dimensional arrangement
 They are one giant molecule with strong covalent bonds
 Curing (cross-linking) reaction is irreversible, unlike
thermoplastics

 Polymerization process takes place in two stages:

 Stage 1 In chemical plant, molecules are partially polymerized
into linear chains.
 Stage 2  Cross-linking is completed under heat and pressure
during the molding and shaping of the part
Polymers: Additives

 To impart certain specific properties, polymers are

compounded with additives
 Plasticizers are added to polymers to impart flexibility
and softness
 Colorants improve to make variety of colors
 Fillers improve strength, hardness, toughness,
abrasion resistance, dimensional stability
 Flame Retardants reduces polymer flammability

 Ultraviolet radiation and oxygen cause polymers to

degrades and becomes stiff and brittle
Polymers: General Properties and
Applications of thermoplastics
Polymers: General Properties and
Applications of thermoset plastics
 Epoxies have excellent mechanical and electrical
properties, good dimensional stability, strong adhesive
properties, good resistance to heat and chemicals

 Polyesters have good mechanical, chemical, and

electrical properties

 Silicones has excellent electrical properties and resist

chemicals and heat
Polymers: Biodegradable Plastics

Recycling of Plastics
 Effort concentrated on collecting and recycling of used
plastic products
 These numbers correspond to the following plastics:
Ceramics: Introduction

 Ceramics are compounds of metallic and nonmetallic

elements
 It can be divided into 2 categories:
1. Traditional ceramics: Pottery, Brick, Tile
2. Industrial ceramics: Turbine, Aerospace components
Ceramics: Introduction

 Crystal structures of ceramics is complex

 Bonding between atoms is covalent or ionic, stronger
than metallic bonds
 Hardness, thermal and electrical resistance are higher
 Grain size major influence the strength and properties

 Properties of ceramics:
 Ceramics is brittle, has high strength and hardness at elevated
temperatures, but low thermal and electrical conductivity
 However, they are sensitive to flaws, defects, and lack of
impact toughness and ductility
Ceramics: Oxide ceramics

2 major types of oxide ceramics: Alumina and Zirconia

Alumina is the most widely used oxide ceramic
 High hardness and moderate strength
 Contains impurities and possesses non-uniform properties
 Used for electrical and thermal insulation and in cutting tools
Zirconia
 Good toughness, good wear and corrosion resistance low
thermal conductivity and a low friction coefficient
 Partially stabilized zirconia (PSZ) has higher strength and
toughness and better reliability in performance
 Used for dies for the hot extrusion of metals and zirconia beads
Ceramics: Oxide ceramics

Silica is a polymorphic material, having different structures

 Most common is quartz, is a hard and abrasive hexagonal crystal
 Silicates is the reaction of silica with oxides of aluminum,
magnesium, calcium, potassium, sodium, and iron

Crystalline Amorphous
Ceramics: Other ceramics

Carbides
1. Tungsten carbide (WC)
2. Titanium carbide (TiC)
3. Silicon carbide (SiC)

Nitrides
4. Cubic boron nitride (cBN)
5. Titanium nitride (TiN)
6. Silicon nitride
Ceramics: Glasses

 Glass is an amorphous solid, it is cooled at a rate too

fast to allow crystals to form (supercooled)
 Glass is defined as an inorganic product of fusion that
has cooled to a rigid condition without crystallizing
 All glasses contain at least 50% silica, known as a
glass former
Ceramics: Glasses

 Commercial glasses are categorized by:

1. Soda-lime glass 4. Aluminosilicate glass
2. Lead-alkali glass 5. 96%-silica glass
3. Borosilicate glass 6. Fused silica glass
Ceramics: Graphite

 Graphite is a crystalline form of carbon having a

layered structure with close-packed carbon atoms
 It is weak when sheared along the layers
 Low frictional properties as a solid lubricant
 It is brittle, has high electrical and thermal conductivity
and good resistance to thermal shock
Ceramics: Graphite - Nanotubes

 Carbon nanotubes is tubular forms of graphite to

implement in nanoscale devices
 Have high strength, to make into a reinforcing fiber for
composite materials
 They have very high electrical current carrying
capability, which can be made as semiconductors
Ceramics: Diamond

 Diamond is a principal form of carbon with a covalently

bonded structure
 Hardest substance known
 It is brittle and decompose in air at about 700°C
 Has numerous important applications:
1. Cutting-tool materials
2. Abrasives in grinding wheels
3. Dressing of grinding wheels
4. Dies for drawing wire
5. Coatings for cutting tools and dies
Ceramics: Overview
Ceramics: Overview
Composite materials: Introduction

 Composite material is a combination of two or

more chemically distinct and insoluble phases
 Known as polymer-matrix, metal-matrix and
ceramic-matrix composites
 Fiber reinforcements improve the strength,
stiffness and creep resistance, strength-to-weight
and stiffness-to-weight ratios of plastics
Composite materials: PMC

 Reinforced plastics consist of fibers in a polymer

matrix
 Also known as polymer-matrix composites (PMC)
and fiber reinforced plastics (FRP)
Composite materials: PMC - Application

 Glass or carbon fiber reinforced hybrid plastics are for

high-temperature applications
 Reinforced plastics is used for weight reduction in
product design
Composite materials: PMC - Application

Composite Military Helmets and Body Armor

 Body armor uses layers of woven fibers
 5 times stronger than steel with density of only 1/5
Composite materials: MMC

 Advantages of a metal matrix over a polymer matrix

are higher elastic modulus, toughness, ductility and
higher resistance
 However, Limitations are higher density and a greater
difficulty in processing parts
Composite materials: MMC - Application

Aluminum-matrix Composite Brake Calipers

 Aluminum-matrix composite brake caliper using nano-
crystalline alumina fiber reinforcement
Composite materials: MMC - Application

Composites in the Aircraft Industry

 Composite content in selected commercial aircraft as a
function of time

B737MAX
Composite materials: CMC

 Ceramic-matrix composites (CMC) are resistance to

high temperatures and corrosive environments
 Ceramics are strong and stiff, they resist high
temperatures, but they lack toughness
 Carbon/carbon-matrix composites retain much of their
strength but lack oxidation resistance at high
temperatures
 Used for automotive engine components
Composite materials: Overview