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COMMUNITY
ECOLOGY
BIO510
 Learning Outcome

1. Describe the community features

2. Explain the types of succession
3. Elaborate the concept of succession

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 Community Change
 All communities change their structure and
composition in response to changing environmental
conditions. The gradual change in species
composition of a given area is called ecological
succession.
– a process of directional change in vegetation in
ecological time

 The modification allows additional sp to establish.

 Can be recognized by a progressive change in sp
composition of the community.
 Community Change
2 types of change can occur in communities:

1) Linear/Directional- Communities change

from simple to complex associations

2) Cyclical –non-directional, repeated, similar

sequences of changes
predictable changes
2. Distributional Relations of
Species in Communities
- Similarity between communities

1.
Features Community
of Communities boundaries

3. Indicator species in Communities

-Types of indicator species
- criteria of indicator species
1. Community Boundaries
– Geographic Area

Boundaries exist and should be sharp and

discontinuous.

 If transition between 2 communities is quick

then differences are clear

 If sp composition and patterns of dominance

shift gradually then boundaries are not clear

 To classify communities : community similarity

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2. Distributional Relations of
Species in Communities
One method to compare communities that look similar in sp
composition: Index of Similarity

 x = numbers of species in one community

 y = number of species in another community
 z = species occurring in both communities

 Index of Similarity = 2z/(x + y).

 The index range from 0 (no similarity) to 1 (complete

similarity)
 Eg in a forest
 Comm A = 26 sp, B = 27 and Z = 17
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 Index = 2*17/27 + 26 = 0.64
Distributional Relations of
Species in Communities
 High indices of similarity = the sp are found in
both communities

 The index of similarity may differ for different

organisms that are being compared between
the communities

 The coefficient does not consider the relative

abundance of species – it is more useful in the
presence and absence of species
3. Indicator Species in Communities
Communities contain many diff sp in many
taxonomic groups so how can we define and
monitor these communities?

One way is by selecting one or a few species

that reflect the community –indicator
species

The presence and changes in numbers of

the indicator sp reflects changes in other
members of the community
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3. Indicator Species in
Communities
Several definition of Indicator species:

1. Umbrella sp – sp with large area requirement – these

can be used in conservation to bring many other sp under
protection
e.g.: elephants, tigers, seladang, grizzly bears

2. Flagship sp – are popular, charismatic sp that serve as

conservation symbols –
e.g.: panda, orang utan, tapir

3. Keystone sp – fundamental sp that maintain the

structure of the community – if they are lost then the
existing community is lost with them
e.g.: sea otter, carnivorous starfish Pisaster ochracceus
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 Criteria for indicator sp

 the rigorous process of selection –for signpost of

community or to determine community health.

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Criteria for indicator sp
1. sp should be taxonomically well known and
stable

2. they should be permanent residents of the

community

3. sp should be able to be surveyed easily

4. sp should specialized
be to one
community or habitat

5. closely associated
the indicator sp should be
with a group of other taxa
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Community Change
 The development of the community by the
action of vegetation on the environment
leading to establishment of new sp is termed as
succession
– a process of directional change in
vegetation in ecological time

The modification allows additional sp to

establish.
 Can be recognized by a progressive change in
sp composition of the community.
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 Community Change
2 types of change can occur in communities:

1) Linear/Directional- Communities
change from simple to complex
associations
2) Cyclical –non-directional, repeated,
similar sequences of changes
 predictable changes
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What factors cause community
change?
How predictable are community
changes?

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 Primary succession

2 TYPES OF SUCCESSION

Secondary succession

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Primary Succession
Primary – occurs where region
completely bare ground and there are no
living organisms (e.g. bottom of drained
lakes, exposed land after glaciers retreat, area
cleared by fire and volcanic islands e.g.:
Krakatau explosion)

 As the vegetation develops it provides shades,

enriches the soil with humus, together with
the associated animals communities, modified
the present habitat.

 example: lichen -> moss -> grass -> shrub ->

trees -> complex forest
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 Secondary Succession

Secondary succession
begins on soil from which previous
community has been removed (by fire,
agriculture, etc.)
example: grass -> shrub -> trees ->
complex forest
can proceed much faster because the soil
has been prepared by the previous
community
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Concepts of succession
(models)
 The key assumption of the classical theory
of succession is that species replace one
another
- e.g.: lichen-mosses-shrub-trees
 because at each stage they modify the
environment and
 make it less suitable for them and
 more suitable for others

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 1. Facilitation model

4. Random
3. Tolerance
model
Concept of succession Colonization
model

2. Inhibition model

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1. Facilitation model

sp replacement is orderly and

predictable and provides
directionality for succession

– early sp facilitate the arrival of

later sp

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Example: Alder
trees (shrubs)
facilitate
succession by
fixing nitrogen
in soils, making
them more
suitable for
invasion by
birch, aspen
spruce trees
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2. Inhibition model
 Sp present in early succession inhibit establishment of later sp

 which arrives first will establishes until it dies

 not an orderly replacement but because “who gets there first” is by

chance

 no sp is competitive superior to each other

 succession proceeds from short lived sp to long lived sp

 Succession becomes more individualistic and less predictable –

communities are not moving to climax
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 Crabgrass (summer) and
Horseweed (winter) disperse well
(r-selected), and tolerate sunny,
bare soil conditions, but are easily
outshaded by perennials such as
broomsedge (example of inhibition
by broomsedge)

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 3. Tolerance model
The presence of early successional species
is not essential
– any sp can start succession as long as
they have tolerant to the limited resources

 Some sp are competitively superior and they predominate in the

climax community

 Sp are replaced by other sp that are more tolerant of limiting

resources

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4. Random
colonization model

illogical model with no ecological

interactions

No facilitation and no competition

– succession can move in any direction

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Summary

 The first 3 (facilitation, inhibition, tolerance) agree in

predicting that pioneer sp appear first because they have
adaptive features like:
 Rapid growth
 Abundant seed production
 High dispersal power

 In facilitation model replacement is facilitated by previous

stages (sp)
 In inhibition model, sp replacement is inhibited by present
residents until damaged or killed
 In tolerance and random colonization models, sp
replacement is not affected by the present residents
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