SPECIAL THEORY OF

RELATIVITY
 Inertial frame

• Fig1. Frame S’ moves in the +x direction with the speed v

relative to frame S.
 Galelian Transformation
• From figure 1 we can obtain Galelian
transformation equations as
• x’=x-vt (1.1)
• y’=y (1.2)
• z’=z (1.3)
• t’=t (1.4)
• Therefore, v’x=vx-v
• In case of light, c’=c-v (1.5)
 Newton’s idea and inertial
reference frame
• The classical laws of physics were formulated by
Newton in the Principia in 1687.
• Motion of a particle has to be described relative to an
inertial frame in which the particle, not subjected to
external forces, will move at a constant velocity in a
straight line.
• Two inertial frames are related in that they move in a
fixed direction at a constant speed with respect to each
other.
• Time in the frames differs by a constant and all times
can be described relative to an absolute time.
 What is special about special
theory of relativity
• Einstein published this theory in 1905. The
word special here means that we restrict
ourselves to observers in uniform relative
motion. This is as opposed the his General
Theory of Relativity of 1916; this theory
considers observers in any state of uniform
motion including relative acceleration. It
turns out that the general theory is also a
theory of gravitation.
 Basic postulates of Special
Theory of Relativity
1. The laws of physics take the same form in
all inertial frames.
2. In any inertial frame, the velocity of
light c is the same whether the light is
emitted by a body at rest or by a body in
uniform motion.
 Lorentz Transformation
• Develops a set of Transformation equations
directly form the basic postulates of STR.
• A reasonable guess for the relationship between x
and x/ is
x/ =k(x-vt) (2.1)
Where k is a factor of proportionality that does not
depend upon either x or t but may be a function
of v.
 Lorentz Transformation-2
Justification of the choice (2.1)
1. It is linear in x and x/, so a single event in
frame S corresponds to a single event in
S/ .
2. It is simple, and a simple solution to a
problem should be explored first.
3. It has the possibility of reducing to eqn .
1.1, which we know to be correct in
ordinary mechanics.
 Lorentz Transformation-3
• Equation of Physics must be same in both S and S’,
we need only change the sign of v. Therefore,
x=k(x’+vt’) (2.2)
The factor k must be same in both frame of reference
since there is no difference between S and S’ other
than in the sign of v.There will not be any change
in y,y’ and z,z’ since they are normal to the
direction of v.
. y’=y (2.3)
z’=z (2.4)
 Lorentz Transformation-4
• The time coordinates t and t’, how ever,
are not equal. We can see this by
substituting the value of x’ given in 2.1
into 2.2. We obtain
x=k2(x-vt)+kvt’
Or,
1 k 2 
t '  kt  
 kv 
x
  (2.5)
 Lorentz Transformation-5
• Assume that at t=0, t’=0 both the frames (S and
S’) has same origin and a flare is set off at the
common origin. Now if observers of both the
frame measures the speed with which the light
spreads out. Both obsevers must find same speed
c, which means
x=ct (2.6)
x’=ct’ (2.7)
Substituting both x’ and t’ in equation (2.7) with the
help of (2.1) and (2.5) we obtain
1 k 2

k ( x  vt )  ckt   cx
 kv 
 Lorentz Transformation-6
• Solving the last equation for x we obtain

 v 
 1 
x  ct  c 
1   1  1 c 
  
 v 
2
  k 
Equating this equation with (2.6) we get

1
k 
v2
1
c2
(2.8)
Lorentz Transformation-7

x  vt
x 
v2
1
c2
y  y
z  z
vx
t 
t  c2
v2
1
c2
Inverse Lorentz Transformation

x  vt 
x
v2
1 2
c
y  y
z  z
vx
t  2
t c
v2
1 2
c
 Length contraction
• A rod is lying along the x’ axis of the
moving frame S’. If an observer determines
the coordinates of its ends to be x’1 and x’2
then the length of the rod is
L0= x’2 - x’1
Therefore, L0 is the length of the rod in a
frame in which the rod is at rest. Now using
Lorentz transformation
x  x
2 1 L
L0  
2
v v2
1 2 1 2
c c
Where L is the length measured in S
 Length contraction-2
• Therefore,
L=L0(1-v2/c2)1/2
The Length of an object in motion with
respect to an observer appears to the
observer to be shorter than when its at rest
with respect to him, this phenomenon is
known as Lorentz FitzGerald contraction.
 Time dilation
• Assume a clock is placed at x’ in the moving frame
S’. When an observer in S’ measures a time interval
t0=t’2-t’1
The observer in S, will measure this interval as

vx vx
t 2  t1
 
t  t 2  t1  c2  c2
v2 v2
1 2 1 2
c c
  t1
t2 t0
 
A stationary clock
v measures v
1  a longer time interval
2 2
1 2 2
c c
between events occurring in a moving frame of
reference than does a clock in the moving frame
 Velocity Addition-1
• Let us consider something which is
moving relative to both S and S’. An
observer in S measures three component of
velocity to be dx
Vx 
dt
dy
Vy 
dt
dz
Vz 
dt
 Velocity Addition-2
• To an observer in S’ they are
dx
Vx 
dt 
dy 

Vy 
dt 
dz 
Vz 
dt 
 Velocity Addition-3
• By differentiating the Lorentz transform
equations for x’, y’, z’ and t’, we obtain
dx  vdt
dx 
v2
1 2
c
dy   dy
dz   dz
vdx
dt 
dt   c2
v2
1 2
c
 Velocity Addition-4
• Now we can write,
dx dx  vdt
Vx  
dt  dt  vdx
c2
dx
v
V v
 dt  x
v dx vV
1 2 1  2x
c dt c
• This is relativistic velocity transformation
equation. Its Inverse transformation
Vv
equation is Vx  x

x

vVx
1
c2
 Velocity Addition-5
• By applying the same technique we can
obtain transformation for Vy and Vz as
v2
dy 1  2
 dy  c
Vy  
dt  1
vdx
c2
dy v2 v2
1 2 Vy 1  2
 dt c  c
v dx vVx
1 2 1
c dt c2
Simiarly ,
v2
Vz 1
 c2
Vz 
vVx
1
c2
 Velocity addition-6
• Example: Let V/x=c, that is, if a ray of light
is emitted in the moving reference frame
S’ in its direction of motion relative to S,
an observer in frame S will measure the
velocity Vv cv
Vx  x

vVx vc
1 2 1 2
c c
c (c  v )
 c
(c  v )
 The relativity of mass-1
• Consider an elastic collision of two identical
particles A and B. Particle A has been at rest at
frame S and Particle B in frame S’.
• Then at the same instant A is thrown in the +y
direction at the speed VA. While B thrown in –y’
direction at the speed V’B where
VA= V’B
 Relativity of Mass-2
• When the two particles collide, A rebounds in –y
direction at the speed VA, while B rebounds in the +y’
direction at the speed V’B. If the particles are thrown
from positions Y apart an observer in S finds the
collision occurs at y=.5Y and the one in S’ finds that it
occurs at y’=.5Y. The round trip time T0 for a as
measured in frame S is therefore
Y
T0 
VA
• And it is the same for B in S’,
Y
T0 

VB
 Relativity of Mass-3
• Since momentum is conserved in S frame,
m AV A  mBVB

Where mA and mB are the masses of A and B

respectively. In S the speed VB is
Y
VB 
T
Where T is the time required for B to make its
round trip as measured in S. In S’, however B’s
trip requires T0 where T  T 0

v2
1 2
c
 Relativity of Mass-4
• We can write VB in terms of T0 as
v2
Y 1 2
VB  c
T0
again we have
Y
VA 
T0

• Inserting these equations in the equation of

momentum conservation we get
v2
m A  mB 1 2
c
mA
or , mB 
v2
1 2
c
 Relativity of mass-5
• Our original hypothesis was that and B are
identical when at rest with respect to an
observer ; the difference between m A and
mB therefore means, measurement of mass
depends upon the relative velocity between
an observer and whatever he is observing.
 Relativity of Mass-6
• Consider a similar case when VA and VB are very
small. Now an observer in S will see B approach
A with velocity v and make a collision and then
continue on. In S mA=m0
(rest mass of the particle) and
mB=m
Therefore,
m0
m
v2
1 2
c
 Relativity of Mass-7
• The mass of a body moving at the speed v
relative to an observer is larger than its
mass when at rest relative to the observer
by the factor
v2
1 2
c