Note: The majority of content in this powerpoint was

obtained from the website of B. Dodge, Department of

Applied Health Science at Indiana University.
http://phhp.ufl.edu/~bdodge/,

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 1

 What is Qualitative Research?
• A holistic approach to questions--a
recognition that human realities are
complex. Broad questions.
• The focus is on human experience
• The research strategies used generally
feature sustained contact with people in
settings where those people normally
spend their time. Contexts of Human
Behavior.
Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 2
 Qualitative Research cont.
• There is typically a high level of
researcher involvement with subjects;
strategies of participant observation
and in-depth, unstructured interviews
are often used.
• The data produced provide a
description, usually narrative, of people
living through events in situations.
Cited from Boyd, pp. 67-68 in Munhall, 2001

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 3

 Types of Qualitative Data
• 1. Interviews

• 2. Observations

• 3. Documents

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 4

 Types of Qualitative Data
• 1. Interviews
– Open-ended questions and probes yield in-
depth responses about people’s
experiences, opinions, perceptions,
feelings and knowledge.

– Data consist of verbatim quotations with

sufficient context to be interpretable.

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 5

 Types of Qualitative Data cont.
• 2. Observations
– Fieldwork descriptions of activities,
behaviors, actions, conversations,
interpersonal interactions, organizational or
community processes, or any other aspect of
observable human experience.

– Data consist of field notes: rich detailed

descriptions, including the context within
which the observations were made.

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 6

 Types of Qualitative Data cont.
• 3. Documents
– Written materials and other documents,
programs records; memoranda and
correspondence; official publications and
reports; personal diaries, letters, artistic
works, photographs, and memorabilia; and
written responses to open-ended surveys.

– Data consists of excerpts from documents

captured in a way that records and preserves
context.

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 7

 Qualitative Traditions of Inquiry
• 1. Biography--Life history, oral
history
• 2. Phenomenology--The lived
experience
• 3. Grounded theory
• 4. Ethnography
• 5. Case Study

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 8

 Biographical Study

– The study of an individual and her or his

experiences as told to the researcher or
found in documents and archival
material.

– Life history--The study of an individual’s

life and how it reflects cultural themes
of the society.

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 9

 Biographical Study cont.
– Oral history--The researcher gathers
personal recollections of events, their
causes, and their effects from and
individual or several individuals.

– The researcher needs to collect extensive

information about the subject of the
biography

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 10

 Biographical Study cont.

The writer, using an interpretive approach,

needs to be able to bring himself or herself
into the narrative and acknowledge his or
her standpoint.

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 11

 Phenomenology
– Describes the meaning of the lived
experience about a concept or a
phenomenon for several individuals.

– It has roots in the philosophical

perspectives of Husserl, Heidegger, Sartre,
Merleau-Ponty, etc.
--Max Van Manen, Munhall (Nursing)

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 12

 Phenomenology

• Moustakas, 1994, p. 13: “to determine

what an experience means for the
persons who have had the experience
and are able to provide a
comprehensive description of it. From
the individual descriptions, general or
universal meanings are derived, in
other words, the essences of
structures of the experience.”

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 13

 Grounded Theory

– Based on Symbolic
Interactionism which posits
that humans act and interact
on the basis of symbols, which
have meaning and value for the
actors.

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 14

 Grounded Theory cont.
• The intent of grounded theory
is to generate or discover a
theory that relates to a
particular situation. If little is
known about a topic,
grounded theory is especially
useful
Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 15
 Grounded Theory cont.

– Usually have a question, don’t do

a literature review in the beginning.

– Usually do 20-30 interviews

(maybe more than one time for
each person)

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 16

 Grounded Theory cont.

– Data collection and analysis occur

simultaneously, until “saturation” is
reached.

– Data reviewed and coded for categories

and themes.

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 17

 Grounded Theory cont.
– Data analysis generates a visual picture, a
narrative statement or a series of hypotheses
with a central phenomenon, causal conditions,
context and consequences.

– The researcher needs to set aside theoretical

ideas or notions so that analytical or
substantive theories can emerge from the data.

– Systematic approach

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 18

 Ethnography
– A description and interpretation of a
cultural or social group or system. The
researcher examines the group’s
observable and learned patterns of
behavior, customs, and ways of life.

– Involves prolonged observation of the

group, typically through participant
observation.

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 19

 Ethnography

– Field Work
– Key Informants
– Thick description
– Emic (insider group perspective) and Etic
(researcher’s interpretation of social life).
– Context important, need holistic view.
– Need grounding in anthropology.

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 20

 Ethnography cont.

– Need extensive time to collect data

– Many ethnographies may be written in a

narrative or story telling approach
which may be difficult for the audience
accustomed to usual social science
writing.

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 21

 Ethnography cont.

– May incorporate quantitative data

and archival documents.

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 22

 Case Study

– A case study is an exploration of a

“bounded system” or a case (or multiple
cases) over time through detailed, in-depth
data collection involving multiple sources of
information rich in context.

– The context of the case involves situating

the case within its setting. which may be
physical, social, historical and/or economic.

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 23

 Case Study cont.

– Data collection strategies include direct

observation, interviews, documents,
archival records, participant observation,
physical artifacts and audiovisual
materials.

– Analysis of themes, or issues and an

interpretation of the case by the
researcher.

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 24

 Feminist Research
• Uses feminist theory as the philosophical underpinning of
the approach.
• Assumes most formal knowledge is generated by men.
• Assumes that patriarchy and the use of power is harmful
to women.
• Some feminists also recognize social class and race as
socially generated constructs that are used to oppress
others.

Qualitative Research--Simpson 25
Spring 2006
 Feminist Research is often classified in the
“qualitative research” family because:
• It is used to generate new knowledge.
• It’s purpose is to create social change.
• It argues against the “top-down,” hierarchal relationships
associated with male-dominated knowledge by
minimizing the social distance between researcher and
subject. Respondents often participate in the research
process.
• It focuses on the position in society of research subjects
and the researcher.
• The perspectives or standpoint of the subject and
researcher are central in data collection and analysis.

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 26

 The term standpoint refers to:
• The perspectives or lived experiences of the
researcher and his or her subjects.
• These perspectives vary based on the location
of individuals in the social structure. Are their
perspectives different from those with
privileged positions in society. Is this standpoint
associated with oppression based on social
class, ethnicity/race, gender, sexual orientation
etc. or some combination of these attributes.

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 27

 Designing a Qualitative Study

• Problem Statement or Statement of

Need for the Study
• No hypothesis; Research questions
which you want to answer instead.
• Opinions differ about the extent of
literature needed before a study begins.
• Need to identify the gaps in knowledge
about the topic.

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 28

 Qualitative Study Design cont.
• Research questions that are too broad:
– Does Buddhism account for the patience
that seems to dominate the Thai world
view?

– How do leaders make their decisions?

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 29

 Qualitative Study Design cont.

• Research questions better answered

by quicker means:

– What television programs do Brazilians

watch most?

– Where can you buy postage stamps in

Italy?

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 30

 Qualitative Study Design cont.

• Examples of Qualitative Questions

– What do people in this setting have to know in order to
do what they are doing?

– What is the story that can be told from these

experiences?

– What are the underlying themes and contexts that

account for the experience?

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 31

 Qualitative Sampling Strategies

• No probability sampling

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 32

 Sampling Strategies cont.
• Decisions about sampling and
sampling strategies depend on the
unit of analysis which has been
determined.
– individual people
– program, group organization or
community
– genders, ethnic groups, older and
younger

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 33

 Sampling Strategies cont.
• Purposeful or Judgment Sampling
– “In judgment sampling, you decide the
purpose you want informants (or
communities) to serve, and you go out to find
some” Bernard, 2000:176

– “Key Informants” are people who are

particularly knowledgeable about the inquiry
setting and articulate about their knowledge.

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 34

 Sampling Strategies cont.
• Purposeful Sampling Strategies
– Maximum variation
– Homogeneous
– Critical case
– Theory based
– Confirming and disconfirming cases

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 35

 Sampling Strategies cont.

– Snowball or chain
– Extreme or deviant case
– Typical case
– Intensity
– Politically important cases
– Random purposeful

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 36

 Sampling Strategies cont.

– Stratified purposeful
– Criterion
– Opportunistic
– Combination or mixed
– Convenience

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 37

 Qualitative Data Collection
• Rather than developing an instrument
to use, the qualitative researcher is the
instrument.
• Recording data: Field notes, tape
recorders, video and photographic data
• Interviews must be transcribed.

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 38

Fieldwork Strategies and Observations
• “In the fields of observation, chance
favors the prepared mind.” Louis
Pasteur

• “People only see what they are

prepared to see.” Ralph Waldo
Emerson

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 39

 Fieldwork Observations

• Learn to pay attention, see what there is

to see, and hear what there is to hear.
• Practice writing descriptively
• Acquiring discipline in recording field
notes
• Knowing how to separate detail from
trivia to achieve the former without
being overwhelmed by the latter.

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 40

 Fieldwork Observations cont.

• Use rigorous methods to validate and

triangulate observations.
• Reporting strengths and limitations of
one’s own perspective, which requires
both self-knowledge and self-
disclosure.
• Participant observer or onlooker or
both

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 41

 Qualitative Interviewing
1. Informal conversational interview

2. Interview guide approach

3. Standardized open-ended interview

4. Closed, fixed-response interview

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 42

 Qualitative Interviewing cont.
• Sequencing questions
• Use words that make sense to the people
being interviewed.
• Ask truly open-ended questions
• Avoid questions which can be answered
with a yes or no.
• One idea per question.
• Be careful with Why questions.

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 43

 Qualitative Data Analysis
• When does analysis begin? During
data collection.
• Thick description is the foundation for
qualitative analysis and reporting.
• Organize the data. Read all the data
and get a sense of the whole.
• Coding for recurring themes and
categories

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 44

 Qualitative Data Analysis
• Computer-assisted qualitative data
management and analysis
– Ethnograph
– NUD*IST (Non-numerical Unstructured
Data With Indexing, Searching and
Theorizing) QSR N6 and QSR NVivo
– ATLAS.ti

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 45

 Qualitative Data Analysis
• Coding data
• Finding Patterns
• Labeling Themes
• Developing Category Systems
• Looking for emergent patterns in the
data

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 46

 References
Bernard, H.R. (2000). Social Research Methods:
Qualitative and Quantitative approaches. Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage
Creswell, J.W. (1998). Qualitative Inquiry and Research
Design: Choosing Among Five Traditions. Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage
Munhall, P.L. (2001). Nursing Research: A Qualitative
Perspective, 3rd Edition. Sudbury, MA: Jones and
Bartlett
Patton, M.Q. (2002). Qualitative Research & Evaluation
Methods, 3rd Edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 47