PERPETUATION

OF
LIFE
“The Continuation of Life”
 Plant
Reproducti
on
PLANT REPRODUCTION: Asexual
Reproduction

• No fusion of sex cell or gametes

• Only a single parent is involved
• Produce from vegetative units
• Genetically identical to the parent
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION: Fission
• Example: yeast or bacteria
• 2,4, or 8 daughter cells
• Binary (2) or multiple (4) daughter cells
• Each daughter cell grows into a new organism

Binary Fission- a process where one cell divides

to form two identical cells. This an example of
asexual reproduction.
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION: Budding

• Build-like growth in the side of

the parent cell
• Separate from the parent cell
• Becomes new organism
• E.G Hydra
BUDDING
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION:
Fragmentation

• Accidental breaking off into

many fragments
• Gives rise to a new organism
through cell division
• E.G Spirogyra
Fragmentation
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION: Spore
Formation
• Occurs in lower plants
• E.g pteridopytes and byrophytes
• Special reproductive units developed
asexually on the parent’s body
(spores)
• Develop into new plants
Spore Formation
VEGITATIVE REPRODUCTION

• Formation of new plants form a

somatic (vegetative) cell
• Only requires mitotic division
• No gametic fusion occurs
• Daughter plants are exact copies of
their parents
• Fusion of male and female gametes
• Haploid gametes
• Contain the half genetic material
• Fertilization results in the formation of a
diploid zygote
• Offspring are not genetically similar to
their parents
REPRODUCTION IN LOWER PLANTS:
Chlamydomanas

• Unicellular algae
• Haploid
• Flagella
• Large chloroplast is present
• May undergo sexual (loses flagella) or
asexual (zoospores) reproduction
REPRODUCTION IN LOWER PLANTS:
Spirogyra

• Free-floating algae
• Contains a row rectangular cells join
end-to-end
• Vegetative reproduction
(fragmentation) or sexual reproduction
(scalariform conjugation)
REPRODUCTION IN ANGIOSPERMS
(Flowering Plants)

• Flower: basic reproductive unit

• Annuals: live for one year
• Biennials: live for two seasons
• Perennials: live for several years
• Monocarpic: perennial plants that
reproduce only once during their lifetime
and the die
 INITIATION OF FLOWERING
• Germination
• Young plant grows until it has a definite
shape and size
• Young or juvenile phase
• Plant completes vegetative growth
• Vegetative shoot apex transform into a
floral apex
• Flowering stage
FACTORS AFFECTING FLOWERING

• Photoperiodism (light)
• Vernalisation
(temperature)
• Gibberrelin
• Auxin
• Ethylene
 ANATOMY OF A FLOWERS

• Four whorls on a stalk (thalamus)

• Sepals comprise the calyx
• Petals comprise the corolla
• Outer whorls = accessory whorls
• Inner whorls = androecium (male)
gynoecium (female)
 Stamen, Microsporagia, and Pollen
Grain
• Stamen: contains anther with microsporagia
•Microsporagia: four pollen sacs supported by
filament
• Sporangium has prominent nucleus and
cytoplasm
• Also known as microspore mother cells
• Microsporangium has epidermis and tapetum •
Undergoes meiosis
• Has four haploid microspores
The Development of the Male Gametophyte

• Outer wall of microspore has

two layers: exine and intine
• Exine: made of sporopollenin
and has germ pores
• Intine: cellulosic wall
• Pollen tube grows out through
germ pores
• Pollen grain not male gamete
but produces the male gamete
 The Development of the Female
Gamete

• Ovule is covered by integuments

• Ovule is attached to the ovary via a
furniculus • Basal part is known as chalaza
• Pistil (gynoecium) is the reproductive part
• Megasporagia are future seeds
• Ovule consists of integuments and nuclei;
attached to placenta on the other end
 The Development of the Female
Gamete
• A single hypodermal cell becomes larger
• Becomes the megaspore mother cell
• Undergoes meiotic cell division
• Gives rise to four haploid megaspore cells
• Three degenerate, one remains functional
• 8 nuclei form= embryo sac
• Migrate and form three groups
• Two at center of the sac= central cell
 Vegetative Reproduction in
Angiosperms

• Natural Method: underground

modification of stems (ginger, potation,
onion, corn)
• Artificial Method: cutting, layering,
aerial layering
Animal Reproduction

• Sexual or asexual
• Fission
• Budding
• Sexual reproduction
• Union of two gametes
• Mitosis
• Meiosis
Different Approaches to Sex

• Parthenogenesis (virgin birth)

• Hermaphroditism
• Sequential hermaphroditism
• Protogyny
• Protandry
 Sex Determination
• Fish: conditions which determine sex
• Mammals: sex is predetermined during
embryonic stage
• Reproductive systems of both males and
females identical during first 40 days of
embryonic development
• Sex-determining gene (SRY) highly
conserved during evolution
 Fertilization and Development
• External fertilization: occurs in
organisms in the ocean, dispersion
of sperm over large distances
• Internal fertilization:
introduction of male gamete into
female reproductive tract
• Oviparity
• Oviviparity
• Viviparity
Reproduction in Fish and Amphibians

• Teleosts: fertilization occurs

externally; enough yolk until ready to
hatch
• Cartilagenous fish: fertilization
occurs externally; introduction of
sperm through modified pelvic fin;
viviparous development
Reproduction in Fish and Amphibians
• In most cases, amphibians use external
fertilization
• Gametes released through the cloaca
• Cloaca: special opening
• Eggs develop in the water
• Time required for development longer than
fish
• Embryonic, larval, and adult stages
Reproduction in Reptiles and Birds
• Most are oviparous
• Reptile eggs are leathery
• Birds: internal fertilization
• Larger birds: male cloaca extend to
form a false penis
• Glands in oviduct secrete egg whites
to form egg shells
• Homeotherms
• Amniotic eggs
Birds and Reptiles
 Reproduction in Mammals

• Reproductive cycles vary

• Estrus: period of sexual receptivity
• Estrous cycle: reproductive cycle
• Changes according to FSH and LH
• Secreted by anterior pituitary glad
• Changes in egg cell development and hormone
secretion in the ovaries
 Overview of Genetics: Genes and
Chromosomes

• Gregor Mendel
• Breeding experiments with peas in 1865
• Mendelian genetics
• Allele: specifies a certain inherited trait
• Dominant allele
• Recessive allele
Overview of Genetics: Genes and
Chromosomes
• Drosophila melanogaster
• Eye color, wing shape
• Linked genes
• Genetic recombination
• Frequency of recombination can be
used for mapping the positions of
genes on chromosomes
Genes and Chromosomes
Overview of Genetics: Genes and
Enzymes

• Phenylketoneuria: genetic defect

in the synthesis of phenylalanine
• Watson and Crick
• Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine,
Thymine
• Complementary base pairing
-Thank you