TRAN3003

Transportation Engineering
Lecture 3
Parking Structures and Economics
 Parking Structures and Economics

General
Parking is a secondary activity, as people only
park in order to do something else, like shop or
work.
Owners tend to focus on well designed,
aesthetically pleasing and functional buildings
and often overlook the parking area.
However, the (off-street) parking lot is the first
and last part of a facility to be used by
customers, employees, residents, etc.
Parking Structures and Economics (Cont’d)

General (Cont’d)
By creating the first and last impression of the
shopping mall, office or other facility, it can
have a significant impact on the welcome and
other aspects of the atmosphere conveyed to
the user.
An under-designed pavement in a parking
area is susceptible to significant maintenance
problems and a shortened service life.
Parking Structures and Economics (Cont’d)

General (Cont’d)
Cracking, potholes and depressions in the
pavement, as well as frequent flooding and
ponding water are examples of the conditions
that can result from poor design and/or
construction.
Further, parking lots that are not secured, or
unkempt, can also discourage use not only of
the parking lot, but also the facility it was
intended to service.
Parking Structures and Economics (Cont’d)
General (Cont’d)
Design considerations for a parking lot should
include:
•zoning legislation or approving agency
requirements for off-street parking
•aesthetics
•safety (for motorists and pedestrians)
•optimum use of the available parking space
•low maintenance costs
•environmental compatibility (e.g. minimize the
amount of impervious surfaces and provide
adequate drainage)
Parking Structures and Economics (Cont’d)

General (Cont’d)
•convenience
•topography (preferably flat)
•use of a rectangular area where possible
•ease of modification for any changes in use
•traffic flow in and out of the lot as well as
circulation inside the parking area
•lighting
•pavement markings/signage
•structural design
 Parking Structures and Economics (Cont’d)

Types of Car Parks

Off-Street parking facilities can be Surface
(single/ground level) or Multi-storey car parks.
The choice of which type should be used in a
particular case depends on the value of the
land on which the facility is to be constructed
and the expected usage.
A multi-storey car-park can be justified where
the cost per vehicle is less than for a surface
park, which generally means high-cost land and
high parking demand, such as in a town centre.
Parking Structures and Economics (Cont’d)
Types of Car Parks (Cont’d)
The converse is also true, as an expensive multi-
level car park cannot be justified where land cost is
low and a surface car park can provide equal
capacity at a lower cost per parking space.
Surface Car Parks
These are the most common as they are relatively
quick and economical to construct when suitable
sites are available.
A surface car park is essentially the same as one
floor of a multi-level car park so many of the physical
features described below for the adequate design of
a surface car park apply equally to a multi-storey car
park.
 Parking Structures and Economics (Cont’d)

Parking Angles (Drive-in)

unit depth

stall
aisle

Common angles are 300 450 Herringbone

450 and 600 900
Parking Structures and Economics (Cont’d)

Surface Car Parks (Cont’d)

Apart from the dimensions of the lot, two
interrelated factors affecting the layout of a car
park are the stall size and the aisle width.
These are determined by the dimensions and
turning radii of vehicles, the clearance between
parked vehicles for motorists to get in and out
of their cars, the angle of parking and the
minimum aisle width for the free and safe flow
of traffic.
Since the dimensions of cars vary substantially,
design is generally based on the largest
common car model.
Parking Structures and Economics (Cont’d)

Surface Car Parks (Cont’d)

Where the lot size allows, the 600 angle is most
appropriate for parking as it allows reasonable
traffic lane widths and eases entry to and exit from
the parking stall.
Where the lot size restricts the dimensions available
for aisles and stalls, a 450 angle may be used. The
smaller change of direction required to enter and
back-out of the stall space permits use of narrower
aisles.
Parking Structures and Economics (Cont’d)

Surface Car Parks (Cont’d)

For suitable lot dimensions, the 900 parking
angle provides the most parking spaces for a
given area as compared to other angles.
The relatively high degree of difficulty in
entering and leaving these stalls makes this
type of parking more suited to all-day parking,
such as staff parking.
This angle is generally not preferred for short-
term parking such as fast food restaurants.
Parking Structures and Economics (Cont’d)

Surface Car Parks (Cont’d)

Stall widths can also be made smaller as the parking
angle provides for better clearance.
The 450 angle reduces the total number of parking
spaces for a given area but is the only acceptable
angle for a herringbone parking lot pattern.
A 300 angle is also used for restricted lot sizes
because of the narrower stall and aisle widths
required. It is less efficient than layouts with the
larger angles as fewer car parking spaces are
provided for a given area.
Parking Structures and Economics (Cont’d)

Surface Car Parks (Cont’d)

Generally, parking aisles should be oriented
parallel to the longer dimension of the site and
the overall width of the car park should be
determined based upon multiples of the unit
parking width.
Walking distance tolerances from parking to a
primary destination are typically 60m to 90m for
shoppers, 150m to 250m for downtown
employees and 450m to 600m for special event
patrons and students.
 Parking Structures and Economics Cont’d)
Typical Parking Stalls and Aisles
Parking Stall Stall Aisle
Angle 0 Width (m) Length (m) Width (m)
1-way 2-way
90 2.75 » '
5.50 7.30 7.30
60 2.75 5.50 5.50 6.00
45 2.50 5.50 4.60 6.00
•
30'
2.50 5.50 3.65 6.00
 Parking Structures and Economics (Cont’d)

Surface Car Parks (Cont’d)

Alternative traffic movements can be used in car
parks, however one-way circulation allows
vehicles to enter and drive directly into the stall. As
a result, traffic flow is more efficient, with the
likelihood of congestion and accidents reduced.
The car park should be provided with the
appropriate number of entrances and exits to meet
projected peak traffic volumes.
Vehicle entrances and exits should be visible,
easily identifiable and as far as possible,
(preferably at least 25 m), from intersections.
Parking Structures and Economics (Cont’d)

OUT
OUT
IN
OUT IN
1- Way Circulation
OUT
IN
OUT IN

2- Way Circulation
Parking Structures and Economics Cont’d)
Multi-Storey Car Parks
These may be classified as ramped or
mechanical.
Ramped
Ramped multi-storey car parks usually involve
customer self-parking. Valet parking is also
provided at certain facilities like hotels.
The ramps provide access to the parking stalls
and generally these car parks, which are also
called split-level car parks, comprise flat floors
linked by short ramps of maximum 7% slope.
 Parking Structures and Economics Cont’d)

Multi-Storey Car Parks (Cont’d)

Ramped (Cont’d)
Alternatively and less common are sloped
parking floors.
Since there are no inter-connecting ramps this
type of car park provides more parking stalls
than a comparable split-level design.
As the vehicles are parked across the slope
of the ramps, the slope must be restricted to under
5% hence these car parks need larger sites.
Parking Structures and Economics (Cont’d)

Multi-Storey Car Parks (Cont’d)

Ramped (Cont’d)
Sloped sites can provide design opportunities such
as access on different levels and/or no ramping
between levels. The overall width of the structure
should be determined based upon multiples of the
chosen unit width.
A longer site provides more parking spaces,
improves efficiency, and lowers the cost per space.
A longer site also allows for shallower ramps which
provide improved user comfort.
Parking Structures and Economics (Cont’d)

Multi-Storey Car Parks (Cont’d)

Ramped (Cont’d)
Examples of multi-storey ramped car-parks
are the single-threaded helix and double-
threaded helix.
Single-threaded helix
This structure has the advantage of being
repetitive and easy for users to understand,
with good visibility and therefore enhanced
security across the structure.
Parking Structures and Economics (Cont’d)

Multi-Storey Car Parks (Cont’d)

Ramped (Cont’d)
The principal disadvantages of a single-
threaded helix are the number of turns/
revolutions required going from bottom to
top.
Two-way circulation also means less flow
capacity with traffic in both directions
impeded by vehicles entering and leaving
the parking stalls.
 Parking Structures and Economics (Cont’d)

Single –
Threaded
Helix
 Parking Structures and Economics (Cont’d)

Double –
Threaded
Helix
 Parking Structures and Economics Cont’d)

Multi-Storey Car Parks (Cont’d)

Ramped (Cont’d)
The double-threaded helix allows one-way
circulation which results in better traffic flow.
However, it is more complicated for users
and the parking area is reduced.
Mechanical
In these car parks lifts take the place of
ramps and headroom is provided for cars
not people.
Parking Structures and Economics (Cont’d)
Multi-Storey Car Parks (Cont’d)
Mechanical (Cont’d)
Consequently more cars can be parked per
unit height of building, which means that
mechanical car parks make the most
effective use of available space, by requiring
the least floor area per car.
A single attendant, by push-button control,
moves cars (locked, with brakes released)
onto a lift platform and then into a parking
stall.
Parking Structures and Economics (Cont’d)

Multi-Storey Car Parks (Cont’d)

Mechanical (Cont’d)
Mechanical car parks have high initial costs,
including the cost of training, as they require
maintenance and operation by skilled
personnel.
Where the technology is new, user
acceptance can be slow as the public needs
to be assured of the safety, etc. of the
facility.
Parking Structures and Economics (Cont’d)

Multi-Storey Car Parks (Cont’d)

Mechanical and Electrical Services
Attention must be paid to installation and
maintenance of elevators, lighting (including
emergency lighting) and fire-prevention/
fighting equipment.
There is also the need for proper drainage
and ventilation, particularly of enclosed and
basement car parks, for user safety, security
and convenience.
Parking Structures and Economics (Cont’d)

Life Cycle Cost

The life cycle cost of an asset is the total
cost of that asset comprising its initial
acquisition and construction cost, operating
and maintenance cost and the cost of
disposal of the asset at the end of its
operating life.
The car park can be a separate facility or
floors on a building and component costs
should be totalled/apportioned appropriately.
 Parking Structures and Economics (Cont’d)
Life Cycle Cost (Cont’d)
The Cost components are:
• Capital costs – initial set-up costs comprising any land
acquisition costs, design and construction costs
• Operating/running costs – utilities, security, janitorial,
etc.
• Maintenance costs – scheduled (like painting and
resurfacing) and emergency/break-down (including
replacement).
• Finance charges - loan interest payments
• Disposal costs – demolition, etc.
Note: any residual value is to be deducted from the
above
 Parking Structures and Economics (Cont’d)
Life Cycle Cost (Cont’d)
Land Cost
A typical parking space is 2.5-2.75 metres wide
and 5.5 metres long, totalling 13.75-15.13 square metres.
Off-street parking typically requires 23-32 square metres
per space, including access lanes and landscaping.
This allows 310-430 spaces per hectare, depending on the
design. Land costs can vary from thousands of dollars per
hectare in rural areas to millions of dollars per hectare in
commercial districts.
 Parking Structures and Economics (Cont’d)
Life Cycle Cost (Cont’d)
Construction Cost
Parking facility construction costs are affected by the
geographic location of the site, its size and shape, the
number of levels, the soil type and topography and the
design.
While land values are cheaper, rural sites may be
located far from a ready supply of construction
materials, skilled labour and/or construction equipment
which increases unit (cost per metre) construction
costs.
 Parking Structures and Economics (Cont’d)
Life Cycle Cost (Cont’d)
Construction Cost (Cont’d)
Small sites tend to increase storage and handling
costs, with materials having to be stored offsite.
Smaller, less efficient equipment may also have to be
used, due to space constraints.
Irregular-shaped sites result in the provision of fewer
car parking spaces (more wasted space) than
rectangular sites, which increases the cost per parking
space constructed.
 Parking Structures and Economics (Cont’d)
Life Cycle Cost (Cont’d)
Construction Cost (Cont’d)
Multi-storey car parks are more complex and
require the installation of mechanical and electrical
engineering services. They are more expensive to
construct than surface parking lots.
Sites with poor soils increase the cost of the parking
facility foundation, thereby increasing its overall
cost, especially if retaining walls are also required.
Flatter land reduces the construction cost of surface
parking lots.
 Parking Structures and Economics (Cont’d)
Life Cycle Cost (Cont’d)
Construction Cost (Cont’d)
However, sloped land can favour multi-level car
parks, allowing access on different levels and may
even eliminate the need for ramps.
In addition to the cost of constructing the facility,
there are usually associated design and project
management fees which add to the capital cost of
developing the facility.
 Parking Structures and Economics (Cont’d)
Life Cycle Cost (Cont’d)
Operation and Maintenance Cost
Operation and maintenance costs include
cleaning, painting, repaving, landscaping and
security.
There is also the cost of administering the
facility, such as fee collection (for priced
parking) and enforcement of parking
regulations.
Higher operating and maintenance costs are
associated with multi-storey facilities.
 Parking Structures and Economics (Cont’d)
Life Cycle Cost (Cont’d)
Operation and Maintenance Cost (Cont’d)
These have mechanical and electrical
installations which also have to be maintained in
good working condition for user safety, etc.
Reconstruction/Disposal Cost
At the end of its useful life (20 plus years) the
parking facility may need to be demolished,
reconstructed or replaced and these costs (less any
revenue if the existing facility can be sold) must be
taken into account in computing its life cycle cost.
Parking Structures and Economics (Cont’d)

Life Cycle Cost (Cont’d)

Money is considered to have a time value as it is
worth more today than in the future.
Future cash flows and revenues are converted into
equivalent present values by discounting.
• Present Value (PV) of future cost/revenue
= Future cost/revenue
n
(1+interest rate) where n is the
number of intervals (usually years). The interest
rate is that applicable to the interval and is
expressed as a decimal (percentage /100).
Parking Structures and Economics (Cont’d)

Life Cycle Cost (Cont’d)

In assessing cost compare the nominal
interest rate (rate charged by the bank ) and
interest rate which is net of inflation.
Net Present Value (NPV) is the difference
between future revenue and future cost .
• NPV = Future revenue – Future Cost
n
(1+interest rate)
Parking Structures and Economics (Cont’d)

Example:
$10,000 to be paid in three (3) years time,
annual interest rate, net of inflation, of 5% :
PV = 10,000/(1.05)3
= 8,638
As above with revenue of $12,000 (parking
fees, etc.):
NPV = (12,000-10,000)/(1.05)3
= 1,728