HEAD

Rex L. Barza MD.,FPCS,FPSGS,FPALES

The head and neck region of the
body contains many important
structures compressed into a
relatively small area
The head is formed mainly by
the skull with the brain and its
covering meninges enclosed in
the cranial cavity. The special
senses, the eye and the ear, lie
within the skull bones or in the
cavities bounded by them.
 The brain gives rise to 12 pairs
of cranial nerves, which leave
the brain and pass through
foramina and fissures in the
skull. All the cranial nerves are
distributed to structures in the
head and neck, except the 10th,
which also supplies structures in
the chest and abdomen.
The skull is composed of several
separate bones united at
immobile joints called sutures.
The connective tissue between
the bones is called a sutural
ligament. The mandible is an
exception to this rule, for it is
united to the skull by the mobile
temporomandibular joint
The bones of the skull can be
divided into those of the
cranium and those of the face.
The vault is the upper part of
the cranium, and the base of the
skull is the lowest part of the
cranium
The skull bones are made up of
external and internal tables of
compact bone separated by a
layer of spongy bone called the
diploe. The internal table is
thinner and more brittle than
the external table. The bones
are covered on the outer and
inner surfaces with periosteum
 Frontal bone: 1
 Parietal bones: 2
 Occipital bone: 1
 Temporal bones: 2
 Sphenoid bone: 1
 Ethmoid bone: 1
 Zygomatic bones: 2
 Maxillae: 2
 Nasal bones: 2
 Lacrimal bones: 2
 Vomer: 1
 Palatine bones: 2
 Inferior conchae: 2
 Mandible: 1
 The orbital margins are bounded by the
frontal bone superiorly, the zygomatic bone
laterally, the maxilla inferiorly, and the
processes of the maxilla and frontal bone
medially
 Within the frontal bone, just above the
orbital margins, are two hollow spaces lined
with mucous membrane called the frontal air
sinuses. These communicate with the nose
and serve as voice resonators.
 The two nasal bones form the bridge of the
nose. Their lower borders, with the maxillae,
make the anterior nasal aperture.
 The nasal cavity is divided into two by the
bony nasal septum, which is largely formed
by the vomer.
 The superior and middle conchae are shelves
of bone that project into the nasal cavity
from the ethmoid on each side; the inferior
conchae are separate bones
 The two maxillae form the upper jaw, the
anterior part of the hard palate, part of the
lateral walls of the nasal cavities, and part of
the floors of the orbital cavities.
 The two bones meet in the midline at the
intermaxillary suture and form the lower
margin of the nasal aperture.
 Below the orbit, the maxilla is perforated by
the infraorbital foramen
 alveolarprocess projects downward and,
together with the fellow of the opposite
side, forms the alveolar arch, which carries
the upper teeth. Within each maxilla is a
large, pyramid-shaped cavity lined with
mucous membrane called the maxillary sinus.
This communicates with the nasal cavity and
serves as a voice resonator.
 The zygomatic bone forms the prominence of
the cheek and part of the lateral wall and
floor of the orbital cavity. Medially, it
articulates with the maxilla and laterally it
articulates with the zygomatic process of the
temporal bone to form the zygomatic arch.
The zygomatic bone is perforated by two
foramina for the zygomaticofacial and
zygomaticotemporal nerves.
 Themandible, or lower jaw, consists of a
horizontal body and two vertical rami
1. The frontal bone forms the anterior part of
the side of the skull and articulates with
the parietal bone at the coronal suture
 The parietal bones form the sides
and roof of the cranium and
articulate with each other in the
midline at the sagittal suture. They
articulate with the occipital bone
behind, at the lambdoid suture.
 The skull is completed at the side by
the
 squamous part of the occipital bone;
 parts of the temporal bone, namely, the
squamous, tympanic, mastoid process,
styloid process, and zygomatic process;
 and the greater wing of the sphenoid.
 The ramus and body of the mandible lie
inferiorly
 the thinnest part of the lateral wall of the
skull is where the anteroinferior corner of
the parietal bone articulates with the greater
wing of the sphenoid; this point is referred
to as the pterion.
 Clinically, the pterion is an important area
because it overlies the anterior division of
the middle meningeal artery and vein.
 sagittalsuture
 lambdoid suture
 external occipital protuberance
 superior nuchal lines
 The posterior parts of the two parietal bones
with the intervening sagittal suture are seen
above. Below, the parietal bones articulate
with the squamous part of the occipital bone
at the lambdoid suture.
 On each side the occipital bone articulates
with the temporal bone. In the midline of
the occipital bone is a roughened elevation
called the external occipital protuberance,
which gives attachment to muscles and the
ligamentum nuchae.
 On either side of the protuberance the
superior nuchal lines extend laterally toward
the temporal bone.
 coronal suture
 metopic suture
 sagittal suture
 Anteriorly,the frontal bone articulates with
the two parietal bones at the coronal suture.
Occasionally, the two halves of the frontal
bone fail to fuse, leaving a midline metopic
suture. Behind, the two parietal bones
articulate in the midline at the sagittal
suture.
 hard palate
 palatal processes of the maxillae
 horizontal plates of the palatine bones
 greater and lesser palatine foramina
 choanae
 vomer
 foramen ovale
 foramen spinosum.
 opening of the carotid canal
 foramen lacerum
 The occipital condyles should be identified;
they articulate with the superior aspect of
the lateral mass of the first cervical
vertebra, the atlas. Superior to the occipital
condyle is the hypoglossal canal for
transmission of the hypoglossal nerve
 Posteriorto the foramen magnum in the
midline is the external occipital
protuberance. The superior nuchal lines
should be identified as they curve laterally
on each side
 cranial cavity contains the brain and
its surrounding meninges, portions of
the cranial nerves, arteries, veins,
and venous sinuses

Vaultof the Skull

Base of the Skull
•Anterior Cranial Fossa
•Middle Cranial Fossa
•Posterior Cranial Fossa
 The internal surface of the vault shows the
coronal, sagittal, and lambdoid sutures. In
the midline is a shallow sagittal groove that
lodges the superior sagittal sinus.
 On each side of the groove are several small
pits, called granular pits, which lodge the
lateral lacunae and arachnoid granulations .
 Several narrow grooves are present for the
anterior and posterior divisions of the middle
meningeal vessels as they pass up the side of
the skull to the vault.
 The interior of the base of the skull is
divided into three cranial fossae: anterior,
middle, and posterior.
 The anterior cranial fossa is separated from
the middle cranial fossa by the lesser wing of
the sphenoid, and
 the middle cranial fossa is separated from
the posterior cranial fossa by the petrous
part of the temporal bone.
 Bone of Structures
Skull Transmitted
Opening in Skull

Anterior Cranial Fossa

Perforations in Ethmoid Olfactory nerves

cribriform plate
Middle Cranial Fossa
Optic canal Lesser wing of sphenoid Optic nerve, ophthalmic
artery
Superior orbital fissure Between lesser and greater Lacrimal, frontal, trochlear,
wings of sphenoid oculomotor, nasociliary, and
abducent nerves; superior
ophthalmic vein

Foramen rotundum Greater wing of sphenoid Maxillary division of the

trigeminal nerve

Foramen ovale Greater wing of sphenoid Mandibular division of the

trigeminal nerve, lesser
petrosal nerve

Foramen spinosum Greater wing of sphenoid Middle meningeal artery

Foramen lacerum Between petrous part of Internal carotid artery

temporal and sphenoid
Posterior Cranial Fossa
Foramen magnum Occipital Medulla oblongata, spinal part of
accessory nerve, and right and
left vertebral arteries

Hypoglossal canal Occipital Hypoglossal nerve

Jugular foramen Between petrous part of Glossopharyngeal, vagus, and

temporal and condylar part accessory nerves; sigmoid sinus
of occipital becomes internal jugular vein

Internal acoustic Petrous part of temporal Vestibulocochlear and facial

meatus nerves
 The scalp consists of five layers, the
first three of which are intimately
bound together and move as a unit .

 Skin,
which is thick and hair bearing
and contains numerous sebaceous
glands
 Connective tissue beneath the skin,
which is fibrofatty, the fibrous septa
uniting the skin to the underlying
aponeurosis of the occipitofrontalis
muscle . Numerous arteries and
veins are found in this layer. The
arteries are branches of the external
and internal carotid arteries, and a
free anastomosis takes place
between them.
 Aponeurosis (epicranial), which is a thin,
tendinous sheet that unites the occipital
and frontal bellies of the occipitofrontalis
muscle . The lateral margins of the
aponeurosis are attached to the temporal
fascia. The subaponeurotic space is the
potential space beneath the epicranial
aponeurosis. It is limited in front and
behind by the origins of the
occipitofrontalis muscle, and it extends
laterally as far as the attachment of the
aponeurosis to the temporal fascia.
 Loose areolar tissue, which occupies
the subaponeurotic space and
loosely connects the epicranial
aponeurosis to the periosteum of the
skull (the pericranium). The areolar
tissue contains a few small arteries,
but it also contains some important
emissary veins.
 Theemissary veins are valveless and
connect the superficial veins of the scalp
with the diploic veins of the skull bones
and with the intracranial venous sinuses .
 Pericranium, which is the
periosteum covering the outer
surface of the skull bones. It is
important to remember that at the
sutures between individual skull
bones, the periosteum on the outer
surface of the bones becomes
continuous with the periosteum on
the inner surface of the skull bones
 when this muscle contracts, the first
three layers of the scalp move
forward or backward, the loose
areolar tissue of the fourth layer of
the scalp allowing the aponeurosis
to move on the pericranium. The
frontal bellies of the
occipitofrontalis can raise the
eyebrows in expressions of surprise
or horror.
 supratrochlear nerve
 supraorbital nerve
 zygomaticotemporal nerve
 auriculotemporal nerve
 lesser occipital nerve
 greater occipital nerve
 Thescalp has a rich supply of blood to
nourish the hair follicles, and, for this
reason, the smallest cut bleeds
profusely. The arteries lie in the
superficial fascia. Moving laterally
from the midline anteriorly

 supratrochlear and the supraorbital

arteries
 superficial temporal artery
 posterior auricular artery
 occipital artery
 supratrochlear and supraorbital
veins
 superficial temporal vein
 posterior auricular vein
 occipital vein
 Lymph vessels in the anterior part of
the scalp and forehead drain into the
submandibular lymph nodes .
 Drainage from the lateral part of the
scalp above the ear is into the
superficial parotid (preauricular)
nodes;
 lymph vessels in the part of the scalp
above and behind the ear drain into
the mastoid nodes.
 Vessels in the back of the scalp drain
into the occipital nodes.
Nerve Components Function Opening in Skull
I. Olfactory Sensory Smell Openings in
cribriform plate
of ethmoid
II. Optic Sensory Vision Optic canal

III. Oculomotor Motor Lifts upper eyelid, Superior orbital

turns eyeball upward, fissure
downward, and
medially; constricts
pupil; accommodates
eye
IV. Trochlear Motor Assists in turning Superior orbital
eyeball downward and fissure
laterally
V. Trigeminal

Ophthalmic division Sensory Cornea, skin of forehead, scalp, Superior orbital

eyelids, and nose; also mucous fissure
membrane of paranasal sinuses
and nasal cavity

Maxillary division Sensory Skin of face over maxilla and the Foramen
upper lip; teeth of upper jaw; rotundum
mucous membrane of nose, the
maxillary air sinus, and palate
Mandibular Motor Muscles of mastication, mylohyoid, Foramen
division anterior belly of digastric, tensor veli ovale
palatini, and tensor tympani

Sensory Skin of cheek, skin over mandible, lower

lip, and side of head; teeth of lower jaw
and temporomandibular joint; mucous
membrane of mouth and anterior two
thirds of tongue
VI. Abducent Motor Lateral rectus muscle: Superior orbital fissure
turns eyeball laterally

VII. Facial Motor Muscles of face, cheek, Internal acoustic

and scalp; stapedius meatus, facial canal,
muscle of middle ear; stylomastoid foramen
stylohyoid; and posterior
belly of digastric
Sensory Taste from anterior two
thirds of tongue, floor of
mouth, and palate

Secretomotor Submandibular and

sublingual salivary
parasympathetic glands,
lacrimal gland, and glands
of nose and palate
VIII. Vestibulocochlear

Vestibular Sensory Position and Internal

movement of head acoustic
meatus

Cochlear Sensory Hearing

IX. Glossopharyng Motor Stylopharyngeus
eal muscle: assists
swallowing

Secretomotor Parotid salivary gland Jugular

parasympatheti foramen
c

Sensory General sensation

and taste from
posterior third of
tongue and pharynx;
carotid sinus and
carotid body
X. Vagus Motor Constrictor muscles of pharynx and Jugular
intrinsic muscles of larynx; foramen
involuntary muscle of trachea and
bronchi, heart, alimentary tract from
pharynx to splenic flexure of colon;
liver and pancreas

Sensory Taste from epiglottis and vallecula

and afferent fibers from structures
named above
XI. Accessory
Cranial root Motor Muscles of soft palate, Jugular
pharynx, and larynx foramen

Spinal root Motor Sternocleidomastoid and

trapezius muscles

XII. Hypoglossal Motor Muscles of tongue Hypoglossal

controlling its shape and canal
movement (except
palatoglossus)
 The skeletal system develops from paraxial and
lateral plate (somatic layer) mesoderm and from
neural crest.
 Paraxial mesoderm forms a segmented series of
tissue blocks on each side of the neural tube,
known as somitomeres in the head region and
somites from the occipital region caudally.
Somites differentiate into a
ventromedial part, the sclerotome,
and a dorsolateral part, . At the
end of the fourth week sclerotome
cells become polymorphous and
form a loosely woven tissue, the
mesenchyme, or embryonic
connective tissue
It is characteristic for mesenchymal
cells to migrate and to differentiate
in many ways. They may become
fibroblasts, chondroblasts, or
osteoblasts (bone-forming cells).
The bone-forming capacity of
mesenchyme is not restricted to
cells of the sclerotome, but occurs
also in the somatic mesoderm layer
of the body wall, which contributes
mesoderm cells for formation of the
pelvic and shoulder girdles and the
long bones of the limbs.
Neural crest cells in the head region
also differentiate into mesenchyme
and participate in formation of
bones of the face and skull.
Occipital somites and somitomeres
also contribute to formation of the
cranial vault and base of the skull.
In some bones, such as the flat
bones of the skull, mesenchyme in
the dermis differentiates directly
into bone, a process known as
intramembranous ossification
 In most bones, however,
mesenchymal cells first give rise
to hyaline cartilage models,
which in turn become ossified
by endochondral ossification
The skull can be divided into two
parts: the neurocranium, which
forms a protective case around the
brain, and the viscerocranium,
which forms the skeleton of the
face.
The neurocranium is most
conveniently divided into two
portions:
 (a) the membranous part, consisting of
flat bones, which surround the brain as
a vault; and
 (b) the cartilaginous part, or
chondrocranium, which forms bones of
the base of the skull.
The membranous portion of the skull
is derived from neural crest cells
and paraxial mesoderm.
Mesenchyme from these two sources
invests the brain and undergoes
membranous ossification. The
result is formation of a number of
flat, membranous bones that are
characterized bythe presence of
needle-like bone spicules.
These spicules progressively radiate
from primary ossification centers
toward the periphery . With further
growth during fetal and postnatal
life, membranous bones enlarge by
apposition of new layers on the
outer surface and by simultaneous
osteoclastic resorption from the
inside.
 The cartilaginous neurocranium or
chondrocranium of the skull initially
consists of a number of separate
cartilages . Those that lie in front of
the rostral limit of the notochord,
which ends at the level of the
pituitary gland in the center of the
sella turcica, are derived from
neural crest cells..
 They form the prechordal
chondrocranium. Those that lie
posterior to this limit arise from
paraxial mesoderm and form the
chordal chondrocranium. The base
of the skull is formed when these
cartilages fuse and ossify by
endochondral ossification
 The base of the occipital bone is
formed by the parachordal cartilage
and the bodies of three occipital
sclerotomes . Rostral to the occipital
base plate are the hypophyseal
cartilages and trabeculae cranii.
These cartilages soon fuse to form
the body of the sphenoid and
ethmoid, respectively. In this
manner an elongated median plate
of cartilage extending from the
nasal region to the anterior border
of the foramen magnum forms.
 A number of other mesenchymal
condensations arise on either side of
the median plate. The most rostral,
the 1. ala orbitalis, forms the lesser
wing of the sphenoid bone. Caudally
it is followed by the 2. ala
temporalis, which gives rise to the
greater wing of the sphenoid.
A third component, the 3.periotic
capsule, gives rise to the petrous
and mastoid parts of the temporal
bone. These components later fuse
with the median plate and with each
other, except for openings through
which cranial nerves leave the skull
The viscerocranium, which
consists of the bones of the
face, is formed mainly from the
first two pharyngeal arches .
At birth the flat bones of the skull
are separated from each other by
narrow seams of connective tissue,
the sutures, which are also derived
from two sources: neural crest cells
(sagittal suture) and paraxial
mesoderm (coronal suture).
At points where more than two
bones meet, sutures are wide
and are called fontanelles .
 The most prominent of these is the
anterior fontanelle, which is found
where the two parietal and two
frontal bones meet. Sutures and
fontanelles allow the bones of the
skull to overlap (molding) during
birth.
Soon after birth membranous bones
move back to their original
positions, and the skull appears
large and round. In fact, the size of
the vault is large compared with the
small facial region
Several sutures and fontanelles
remain membranous for a
considerable time after birth. The
bones of the vault continue to grow
after birth, mainly because the
brain grows. Although a 5- to 7-year-
old child has nearly all of its cranial
capacity, some sutures remain open
until adulthood.