Teaching Written

Expression to
Students with Special
Needs
SpEd 620 Brownbridge
Why teach writing?
Reading Improvement
Required Communication
Influence Others

Thought Clarification
Writing to Learn Reading to Learn

• What do you have to • What did they have

say? to say?
• Be active. • Sit still.
• Do it. • Pay attention.
• Student chooses the • Teacher chooses the
words. words.
• Productive. • Consumptive.
• Output. • Input.
Virginia DeBolt, 1998
 WRITING PROCESS

Daily Opportunities to
explore and create
writing
 Progression through a
number of levels
 Part of well balanced
literacy program
 Purposes of Writing
• To record events • To amuse, entertain
• To explain • To narrate
• To hypothesize • To invent
• To persuade • To inform
• To invite a response • To find out
• To predict • To invite reflection
• To command, direct, • To summarize
or request • To comment or give an
opinion
Dancing with the Pen
 STAGES OF THE
WRITING PROCESS

~ PREWRITING ~
~ DRAFTING ~
~ REVISING ~
~ PROOFREADING ~
~ PUBLISHING ~
 Prewriting
The writer establishes and clarifies a purpose
of writing, brainstorms possible topics, collects
pertinent materials, identifies an audience, chooses
an appropriate form of writing, and establishes an
initial organizational strategy.

The teacher helps students select topics, encourages

them to talk to generate ideas and language about
the topic, provides resources, suggestions, and
materials and discusses appropriate format and
audience.
 INSPIRATION FOR TOPIC
IDEAS
• PERSONAL INTEREST INVENTORIES
• CLASS INTEREST INVENTORIES
• MAGAZINES, NEWSPAPERS, PERIODICALS
• RADIO, TV, INTERNET
• INTERVIEWS
• DREAMS, MEMORIES, EXPERIENCES
• LITERATURE RESPONSE
• DISCUSSION, BRAINSTORMING,
ROLE PLAYING, IMAGINATION
• BRAINSTORMING • CLUSTERING
• FREE WRITING • IMAGE STREAMING
• TOPIC OR WORD • VISUALIZATION
CHARTS • FAST WRITING
• LISTS • GRAPHIC ORGANIZERS
• JOURNALLING • THINKING
• DAYDREAMING
• WEBBING
• MAPPING
 PREWRITING STRATEGIES
~ Graphic Organizers – brainstorming webs,
mind maps, and other charts that help organize
thoughts and ideas ~
~ Come Aboard a R.A.F.T. – Role, Audience,
Format, Topic ~
~ Descriptive Word Prompters ~
~ Five Senses Chart ~
~ Handprint Organizer ~
Cooperative Learning Structures
for Prewriting
4-S Brainstorming
Formations
Inside-Outside Circle
Round Robin
Team Discussion
Team Interview
Think-Pair-Share
 Drafting
The writers express ideas in an uninterrupted flow
while keeping the purpose and audience in mind.
They get information on paper, concentrate on
content and explore topic possibilities. Invented
spellings, blanks, cross-outs, and abbreviations are
acceptable.

The teacher offers encouragement, helps organize

information, gives assistance focusing on the topic,
provides enough time and structure to ensure
students get off to a good start.
What is the purpose for writing this piece?
What will my audience want to know about this
topic?
How can I best arrange my information?
What main ideas do I want to present?
What details will support my main ideas?
What will make a good lead to catch the
reader’s attention?
How can I end the piece effectively?
-Gary R. Muschia
  Revising 
The writers narrow down topics, eliminate
irrelevant writing, reorganize writing, write
additional drafts, and research information.
Content quality, clarity, smooth flowing ideas, and
descriptive language is emphasized.

Teachers encourage peer revision sessions and

encourage students to talk to other students about
their writing and add, cut, and reorder their writing.
Revision is not editing for mechanics
and spelling. It is probably the most
difficult stage to teach students.

Encourage students to:

• Write on one side of the paper.
• Use markers or pens so they can concentrate
on ideas and not on erasing.
• Skip lines so it is easy to mark out/change
words.
 All writing does not have to be
revised, BUT…
Teach students to ask themselves:
• Can I improve my writing?
• Should I write from a different point of
view?
• Are there places where my writing could
be clearer, more interesting, more
informative, or more convincing?
 REVISING METHODS
ARRR
Adding, Rearranging, Removing,
Replacing
RAG
Read Around Group

ARMS
Add, Remove, Move Around,
Substitute
 Proofreading/Editing
Writers should correct mechanical errors
(spelling, punctuation, and capitalization).
Writing should be read aloud before the final
copy is made. An editing checklist is a good
tool.

Teachers should encourage peer proofreading,

provide vocabulary, give instruction of specific skills,
help students evaluate their writing, and encourage
students to consult reference materials.
Teach basic editing conventions to
students and encourage them to
use them in editing
Teach popular acronyms such as:
C Capitalization
O Organization
P Punctuation/Paragraphs
S Sentences/Spelling
Use editing checklists
Cooperative Learning
Structures for
Editing/Proofreading
Corners
Experts Edit
Pairs Confer
Roundtable
Teams Confer
Virginia Debolt, 1998
 Publishing
• Writers make their final copies and share their
finished work.
• Writers feel that their writing is important when
they share.
• Teachers should encourage students to share by
reading aloud, publishing, organizing a class book,
making their own books, displaying final drafts, and
sharing with bulletin boards, electronic bulletin
boards, multimedia presentations, newsletters,
newspapers, oral presentations, journals, etc.
 Author’s Chair is a
popular way for students
to share their writing.
Response to writing

2 Hugs and a Wish

TAG
 Rotating Writing Activity
1. Topics are written on pieces of chart paper and hung around the room.

2. Each team is given a marker.

3. Designate teams to go to one of the papers.

4. Team is given one minute to write on the paper about specific topic.

5. Teams rotate to next paper when time is called.

6. Teams are given one minute to read what the previous team has written.

7. Teams put a question mark beside ones that they have a question on or
disagree.

8. Team has an additional thirty seconds to write any other information.

9. Continue this procedure until each team has rotated to all the papers.
 WRITING WORKSHOP
A BLOCK OF TIME SCHEDULED EACH
DAY WITH STUDENTS WORKING
THROUGH THE WRITING PROCESS.

THIS TIME TYPICALLY BEGINS WITH A

TEACHER DIRECTED MINI-LESSON
FOLLOWED BY STUDENTS WRITING ON
THEIR OWN.

THE TEACHER MOVES FROM

INSTRUCTOR TO FACILITATOR AND
PROMOTER OF WRITING WITH FOCUS
ON INDIVIDUALIZATION.
 THE WRITING WORKSHOP
IS HIGHLY STRUCTURED
AND GENENRALLY
REQUIRES:

A TIMETABLE  RULES
CLASSROOM SPACE  A TYPICAL
STUDENT MATERIALS LESSON
 A TYPICAL LESSON
• LESSON STARTS WITH A MINI-LESSON
THAT IS USUALLY 5-20 MINUTES LONG

• STUDENTS PROCEED WITH THEIR OWN

WRITING. THEY WILL BE AT VARIOUS
STAGES IN THE PROCESS

• AT THE END OF THE LESSON STUDENTS

NEED A CHANCE TO SHARE THEIR
WRITING
 MATERIALS
 DATE STAMP  RUBBER STAMPS
FOR DECORATION
 STACKING TRAY
WITH VARIOUS CHARTS
KINDS AND COLORS  STAPLER
OF PAPER
 HOLE PUNCH
 MARKERS, PENS,
COLORED PENCILS  TAPE
 BASKETS FOR  STICKY NOTES
WRITING PAPERS  DICTIONARIES
 STAGE STAMPS AND  THESAURUS
INK PAD  WORD BOOKS
 ATLAS  PHONE BOOKS
 Motivation
• (2-3 years to develop)
• (More prevalent in writing than reading)

• lack of self-confidence/ (many students do not

self-efficacy see writing at home)

• lack of intrinsic (need by 3rd grade or

motivation very tough to teach)

• lack of independence (words to spell, topic to

write …)

-J.M. Cunningham
Solutions/ Addressing Motivation Problems

This is an approach where

Self-Selected students choose what to write
about and how to write without
Writing the guidance of a teacher

Process writing assumes that

Single Draft students work on more than one
draft. However, single draft
Writing writing is initially done without
standards. This is a shaping
process, in which students work
on their own time to complete
one single draft.
Inventive spelling is accepted at
Phonic Spelling this phase.

This is when students can

Positive Sharing share their first drafts in a
positive atmosphere. In this
positive approach, students
can begin sharing with
questions like, “I’d like to
know more about …”
-J.M. Cunningham
Writing isn’t just a speaking
problem….

• Spelling
• Capitalization
• Punctuation
• Formatting
• Usage (more tolerant in speech
than writing)

-J..M. Cunningham
Solutions: Writing Isn’t Just a Speech
Problem

• Word Walls for high frequency words

• Writing mini-lessons
• Editing instruction (how to use a Word
Wall and editor’s checklist to proofread
and correct you own paper
independently)

-J.M. Cunningham
Meta-analysis review of writing research…

George Hallocks of Chicago stated, “If you

want to teach students appropriate, mechanical
writing, you must teach students to proofread
and correct their own paper using a small set
of rules …. editor’s checklist”.

-J.M. Cunningham
 (Take 4-5 years to develop)

• The natural inability to “juggle” all the components

of writing at the same time
• Need student to have an acceptable first draft.
• “Good writers must handwrite, spell, capitalize, and
format”
• Taking dictation is a horrible writing activity
• Student can do one worksheet but doesn’t
generalize to writing and spelling on test, not a
writing paper
• By the end of elementary the automaticity has
developed such that the first draft is “adequate” to
the last draft

-J.M. Cunningham
 The Writing Process & Writer’s Workshop

• Revision … ways to change content (add,

delete, re-order, replace content)
• Editing … rule-based ways of finding and
correcting errors
• Copying

-J.M. Cunningham
 Mini-lessons begin in a “huddle” in the front of
the classroom. The children are close and can
see the teacher write as she “thinks aloud” and
talks about what she is doing and why. The
teacher writes and models all the things writers
may do. Mini-lessons vary according to grade
level and the observed needs of children.

-J.M. Cunningham
 Great ideas for Mini-Lessons
1. Actual class procedures used during 13. Stories that teach
the writing period
14. “Feelings” in writing
2. Rules for the writing period made by
teacher and/or students 15. Read a book, any book! Books
are great writing models
3. Teacher models writing using “think-
alouds” 16. How to add to or change a story
17. Staying on the topic
4. Working together with the class on
shared writing 18. Rhyming words
5. “Words Authors Use” (word a day: 19. Synonyms
publish, illustrate, edit, topic, dedicate, 20. Homonyms
etc.)
6. Grammar and Usage: 21. Antonyms
• nouns – words that mean a 22. Poetry (This could turn into a
person,place or thing week of mini-lessons)
• verbs – words that show action 23. Letter Writing
• adjectives – words that describe 24. Interviews
7. Capital letters 25. Riddles
8. Punctuation marks 26. Jokes
9. How to “Set a Scene” (setting) 27. Newspapers
10. Fiction 28. How to make a list
11. Non-fiction 29. Student pieces (Always use a
12. Mysteries piece that a student has down
-J.M. Cunningham correctly)
• Bring in something already written (with mistakes),
and put on the overhead.
• Revise- Is it interesting? Does it do what I wanted?
• Get the student to elicit ways that address change.
• Cut poor parts out (kids like to see you cut it out!)
• Typically when adding revision during a mini-lesson,
do not say what you are writing (teachers typically
do). If you don’t say while writing, students have the
chance to read.
• Tape the parts to overhead
• Ask if anyone wants to revise

-J.M. Cunningham
 Copying without new mistakes!

•First – must be revised & approved.

•Second – must be revised, edited, & approved.

Step 1: Copy one sentence at a time. Check

every sentence to see if copied. Use fingers
word by word to help copy correctly.

-J.M. Cunningham
 There are many different types of
genres or types of writing. Each one
must be learned separately!

-J.M. Cunningham
 Solutions to the Multiple-Genres
Problem
Initially self-selected until enough
confidence…motivation to write then address multiple-
genres by:
• Focused writing lessons on a variety of
types of writing (i.e., teacher selected
writing)
• Carefully crafted prompts – problem is not
prompting students, it’s when we prompt –
this is the heart of a focused writing lesson
• Genre-based writing scales – not to teach
students to edit, but how to revise
• use descriptive writing scales (teacher
uses rubric, not students)
• Scale is in a yes/no – present/not present
format
• one item at a time
-J.M. Cunningham
What students read affects how they write…

The Prior-Knowledge Problem

Prompted writing disadvantages some students because
of their lack of adequate prior-knowledge.

• You cannot write well about what you do not

know
• You cannot write well about what you do not
understand
• You cannot write clearly and interestingly
unless you know the vocabulary -J.M. Cunningham
 1. Self-selected writing
2. Experience-based teaching of
science, social studies, and
current events.

-J.M. Cunningham
 Teachers should conference with
students in all stages of the
writing process.
Students should do most of the talking.
The teacher is a coach not a critic.
Focus should be on one point/key element.
Conferences should last no more than two minutes.
Key Questions:
How are you doing? Are you having any problems?
What’s the best part of your piece of writing?
What are you going to do next?
 Peer Conferencing

Use Gambits

Use Peer Response Forms

Use Modeling and Reinforcement

Cooperative Learning Structures
for Conferencing

Corners
Inside-Outside Circle
Numbered Heads Together
Pairs Confer
Roundrobin
Roundtable
Teams Confer
Virginia Debolt, 1998
 10 Rules for Writers
1. Write.
2. Write.
3. Write often.
4. Write about anything.
5. Write about everything.
6. Write about what you see.
7. Write about what you learn.
8. Write about what you think.
9. Write about what you read.
10. WRITE!!! Virginia DeBolt, 1998
 Writing Curricula
• Lucy Calkins & Colleagues: Units of
Study for Teaching Writing which is based
on the Teachers College (Columbia
University) Reading & Writing Project
http://unitsofstudy.com/
http://tc.readingandwritingproject.com/
http://crosscut.com/2010/12/28/education/20491/Bes
t-of-2010:-Is-Seattle-s-writing-curriculum-too-
regimented-/
• Dr. Douglas Reeves: The Write Tools
http://thewritetools.net/
• SRA/McGraw-Hill Products
– SRA Reasoning & Writing
– SRA High Performance Writing: A Structured
Approach (Elementary thru High School)
– SRA Essentials for Writing (Middle thru High
School)
– SRA Expressive Writing 1 & 2 (gr 4 thru High
School; recommended for struggling learners)
https://www.mheonline.com/program/view/