Anatomy & Physiology

The Central Nervous System

Chapter 12
Part 1
Brain Development

Posteriolateral growth of the cerebral hemispheres encloses

the diencephalon and superior aspect of the brain stem
Embryo at four weeks http://w-cpc.org/fetal1.html
Embryonic Development
Ectoderm thickens along dorsal
midline to form the neural plate
The neural plate invaginates,
forming a neural groove flanked
by neural folds
The neural groove fuses
dorsally and forms the neural
tube which detaches from the
surface ectoderm. The neural
tube differentiates into the CNS.
Neural crest cells form some
PNS structures.
Embryonic Development
Neural Tube and Primary Brain Vesicles
The anterior (rostral) end of the neural tube expands
and forms the three primary brain vesicles

Prosencephalon

Mesencephalon

Rhombencephalon
Secondary Brain Vesicles
In week 5 of embryonic development,
secondary brain vesicles form

Telencephalon and
Diencephalon arise from the
prosenencephalon
Mesencephalon remains
undivided
Metencephalon and
Myelencephalon arise from
the rhombencephalon
Adult Brain Structures
Secondary brain vesicles differentiate
into adult brain structures

Telencephalon – cerebrum: cortex, white matter,

and basal nuclei
Diencephalon – thalamus, hypothalamus
Mesencephalon – brain stem: midbrain
Metencephalon – brain stem: pons
Myelencephalon – brain stem: medulla oblongata
Adult Brain Structures
Adult Neural Canal Regions
The central cavity of the neural tube enlarges
in four regions to form fluid-filled Ventricles

Telencephalon – Lateral Ventricles

Diencephalon – Third Ventricle
Mesencephalon – Cerebral Aqueduct
Metencephalon & Myelencephalon – Fourth Ventricle
Spinal Cord – Central Canal
Adult Neural Canal Regions
Ventricles of the Brain
Pair of C-shaped Lateral Ventricles
Third Ventricle in the diencephalon
Fourth Ventricle in the hindbrain dorsal to the pons
Cerebral Hemispheres

Form the superior part of

the brain and make up
over 80% of its mass
Surface Features:
Ridges called Gyri (gyrus)
Shallow grooves called Sulci (sulcus)
Deeper grooves called Fissures

Hemispheres are separated by the Longitudinal fissure

and from cerebellum by the Transverse Cerebral fissure
Cerebral Hemispheres - Lobes
Frontal, Parietal, Temporal, Occipital, and (Insula)
Central sulcus – separates the frontal and parietal lobes
Parieto-occipital sulcus – separates the parietal and
occipital lobes
Lateral sulcus – separates the parietal and temporal lobes
Cerebral Hemispheres – 3 basic regions

Cortex – superficial gray matter,

1-4.5 mm thick
White matter – inner, unmyelinated
Basal Nuclei – islands of gray matter
within the white matter

Cortex (40% of brain mass) consists

of neuron cell bodies, dendrites, and
unmyelinated axons (plus glial cells
and blood vessels), no fiber tracts, all
neurons are interneurons
Cerebral Cortex

Enables sensation, communication, memory,

understanding, and voluntary movements
Each hemisphere controls the opposite
(contralateral) side of the body
Hemispheres are not functionally equivalent
(lateralization or specialization of cortical functions)
No functional area acts alone - conscious behavior
involves the entire cortex
Cerebral Cortex

Three kinds of functional areas:

Motor areas – control voluntary movement
Sensory areas – conscious awareness of
sensation
Association areas – integrate diverse
information, communicate “associate” with
the motor cortex and sensory association
areas to analyze input
Cerebral Cortex
Cerebral Cortex
Cerebral Cortex: Motor Areas
Primary (somatic) motor cortex
Premotor cortex
Broca’s area
Frontal eye field
Primary Motor Cortex

Located in the precentral gyrus of the frontal lobe

Allows conscious control of voluntary movements
Composed of neurons called pyramidal cells -
axons project to spinal cord and make up the
voluntary motor tracts called corticospinal tracts
Primary Motor Cortex

Motor homunculus –
caricature of relative
amounts of cortical
tissue devoted to each
motor function
Premotor Cortex

Located anterior to the precentral gyrus

Controls learned, repetitious, or patterned
motor skills
Coordinates simultaneous or sequential
actions( directly or indirectly)
Involved in the planning of movements
Broca’s Area

Located anterior to the inferior region of the

premotor area
Present in one hemisphere (usually the left)
A motor speech area that directs muscles involved
in speech
Is active as one prepares to speak
Frontal Eye Field

Located anterior to the premotor cortex and

superior to Broca’s area
Controls voluntary eye movement
Sensory Areas
Primary somatosensory cortex
Somatosensory association cortex
Visual and auditory areas
Olfactory, gustatory, and vestibular cortices
Primary Somatosensory Cortex

Located in the postcentral gyrus of the parietal lobe

Receives information from somatic sensory receptors
in the skin and proprioceptors in skeletal muscles
Exhibits spatial discrimination
Primary Somatosensory Cortex

Somatosensory
homunculus –
caricature of relative
amounts of cortical
tissue devoted to each
sensory function
Somatosensory Association Cortex

Located posterior to the primary somatosensory cortex

Integrates sensory information coming from the
primary somatosensory cortex to produce an
understanding (size, texture, and relationship of parts)
of the stimulus
Visual Areas

Primary visual (striate) cortex - located on the

posterior tip of the occipital lobe, most of it is buried
in the calcarine sulcus - receives visual information
from the retinas
Visual association area - surrounds the primary visual
cortex - interprets visual stimuli (e.g., color, form, and
movement)
Auditory Areas

Primary auditory cortex - located in the superior

margin of the temporal lobe -receives information
related to pitch, rhythm, and loudness
Auditory association area - located posterior to the
primary auditory cortex -stores memories of sounds
and permits perception of sounds
Other Sensory Areas

Olfactory (smell) cortex – small area of frontal lobe

above the orbit and in medial temporal lobe
(piriform lobe and uncus)
Gustatory (taste) cortex – in parietal lobe deep to
temporal lobe
Other Association Areas
Prefrontal cortex
Language areas
General (common) interpretation area
Visceral association area
Prefrontal Cortex

Located in the anterior portion of the frontal lobe

Involved with intellect, cognition, recall, personality,
judgment, reasoning, and conscience
Closely linked to the limbic system (emotional part of
the brain)
Language Areas

Broca’s area Wernicke’s

area

Located in a large area surrounding the left (or language-

dominant) lateral sulcus
Broca’s area – speech preparation and production
Wernicke’s area – involved in sounding out unfamiliar
words
Lateral prefrontal cortex – language comprehension and word
analysis. Lateral and ventral temporal lobe – coordinate
auditory and visual aspects of language
General (Common) Interpretation Area (?)
Ill-defined region including parts of the temporal,
parietal, and occipital lobes
Found in one hemisphere, usually the left
Integrates incoming signals into a single thought
Involved in processing spatial relationships
Visceral Association Area (?)
Located in the cortex of the insula
Involved in conscious perception of visceral
sensations
Lateralization of Cortical Function

Lateralization – each hemisphere has abilities not

shared with the other hemisphere
Cerebral dominance – designates the hemisphere
dominant for language
Left hemisphere – controls language, math, and logic
Right hemisphere – controls visual-spatial skills,
emotion, and artistic skills
Cerebral White Matter

Consists of myelinated fibers and

their tracts
Responsible for communication
between areas of the cerebrum amd
between the cerebral cortex and
lower CNS centers
Cerebral White Matter Fiber Tracts

Commissures – connect corresponding gray areas of

the two hemispheres (corpus callosum , anterior and
posterior commissures)
Association fibers – connect different parts of the
same hemisphere
Projection fibers – enter the hemispheres from lower
brain or cord centers
Commissures and Association fibers – horizontal
Projection fibers – vertical
Fiber Tracts in White Matter
Fiber Tracts in White Matter
Basal Nuclei
Masses of gray matter found deep within the cortical
white matter

Corpus striatum:
Caudate nucleus (amygdala- tail of caudate)
Lentiform nucleus – composed of the putamen
and the globus pallidus
Fibers of internal capsule run between and
through caudate and lentiform nuclei, giving them
a striped appearance
Basal Nuclei
Basal Nuclei
Functions of Basal Nuclei

Possible functions of basal nuclei:

Influence muscular activity
Regulate attention and cognition
Regulate intensity of slow or stereotyped
movements
Inhibit antagonistic and unnecessary movement
Diencephalon and Brain Stem
Diencephalon
Central core of the forebrain surrounded by
the cerebral hemispheres
Consists of three paired structures – thalamus,
hypothalamus, and epithalamus
Collectively, these gray matter areas enclose
the third ventricle
Thalamus
Paired, egg-shaped masses that form the superolateral
walls of the third ventricle
Connected at the midline by the interthalamic
adhesion (intermediate mass)
Contains four groups of nuclei - anterior, ventral,
dorsal, and posterior - project and receive fibers from
the cerebral cortex
Thalamus
Thalamus – “gateway” to the cerbral cortex

Afferent impulses from all senses converge and

synapse in the thalamus
Impulses of similar function are sorted out, “edited”,
and relayed as a group to the appropriate area of the
sensory cortex or association areas
All inputs ascending to the cerebral cortex pass
through the thalamus
Plays a key role in mediating sensation, motor
activities, cortical arousal, learning, and memory
Hypothalamus

Below the thalamus, it caps the brainstem and

forms the inferolateral walls of the third ventricle
Mammillary bodies - small, paired nuclei bulging
anteriorly from the hypothalamus - relay stations
for olfactory pathways
Infundibulum – stalk of the hypothalamus
connecting to the pituitary gland
Main visceral control center of the body,
important to overall body homeostasis
Hypothalamic Nuclei
Hypothalamic Function
Regulates ANS by controlling activity of centers
in brains stem and spinal cord
Regulates blood pressure, rate and force of heartbeat,
digestive tract motility, respiratory rate and depth, pupil
size, and many other visceral activities
Center for emotional response - involved in perception of
pleasure, fear, rage
Regulates body temperature – the body’s “thermostat”
Regulates food intake - feelings of hunger and satiety
Regulates sleep-wake cycle
Endocrine Functions of the Hypothalamus

Releasing hormones control the secretion of

hormones by the anterior pituitary

Stimulates ADH release from the posterior

pituitary
Anti-diuretic hormone- causes kidneys to retain
water
Epithalamus

Most dorsal portion of the diencephalon; forms

roof of the third ventricle
Pineal gland – extends from the posterior border
and secretes melatonin, a hormone involved with
sleep regulation, sleep-wake cycles, and mood
Choroid plexus – a structure that secretes cerebral
spinal fluid (CSF) [all ventricles have a choroid
plexus]