Chapter One

The Air We Breathe

What is in the air that we breathe?

Can air be dangerous to our health?

How can understanding chemistry help us decide?

Where are we leaving ?
The Composition of Our Air in Troposphere

It’s a mixture – a physical combination of two or

more substances present in variable amounts. 1.2
 Air Composition
 Nitrogen; N2; 78 %; Oxygen; O2; 21 %
 Argon; Ar; 0.9 %; Other Gases; 0.1 %

O2
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Ar
Argon
N2 Other
Composition of the other gasses

Gas % volume
Argon (Ar) 0.934%

CO2 350 mmv

Ne 18.18 ppmv

He 5.24 ppmv

CH4 1.7 ppmv

Kr 1.14 ppmv
H2 0.55 ppmv
One Breath has 2.0 X 1022 molecules
20 000 000 000 000 000 000 000

How many N2 molecules

Are in a breath of air?
 Ozone (O3)

If one breath of air contains 2 x 1022 molecules and atoms, and

the acceptable ozone level is 0.12 ppm, how many molecules
of O3 are in each breath?
0.12 O3 molecules
2 x 1022 molecules and atoms in a breath of air x
1 x 106 molecules
and atoms in air

= 2 x 1015 O3 molecules in a breath

How many oxygen atoms are in each breath?

2 x 1015 O3 molecules x 3 O atoms___ = 6 x 1015 O atoms

1 O3 molecules

1.12
 When people breathe
What’s in
a Breath?
Typical Composition of Inhaled and Exhaled Air

Substance Inhaled air Exhaled air

(%) (%)
Nitrogen 78.0 75.0
Oxygen 21.0 16.0
Argon 0.9 0.9
Carbon dioxide 0.04 4.0

Water 0.0 4.0

 Concentration Terms
Parts per hundred (percent)
Atmosphere is 21% oxygen = 21 oxygen molecules
per 100 molecules of air

Parts per million (ppm)

Midday ozone levels reach about 0.4 ppm =
0.4 ozone molecules
1 x 106 molecules of air

Parts per billion (ppb)

Sulfur dioxide in the air should not exceed 30 ppb =
30 sulfur dioxide molecules
1 x 109 molecules of air 1.2
21% means 21 parts per hundred
The
means 210 parts per thousand difference
between
means 2,100 parts per ten thousand pph and
ppm is a
means 21,000 parts per hundred thousand factor of
10,000
means 210,000 parts per million

Try Chapter 1 Figures Alive! for practice

1.2
 Classifying Matter
All Matter

NO YES
Can it be separated by
Pure a physical process?
Substances Mixtures

Can it be broken
NO down into YES
simpler ones by
chemical means?

Elements Compounds

1.6
Three States of Matter

Matter - anything
that occupies space
and has mass.

1.5
 Classifying Matter

Classify each of these as an element, a compound, or a mixture:

carbon dioxide compound

nickel element
fluorine element
cocaine compound
compound table salt compound
water
soap mixture
sea water mixture

1.6
 The Periodic Table
Group

Period
A space filling model for a
water molecule, H2O
Oxygen atom

A molecule is a combination of a
fixed number of atoms held
together in a certain spatial
arrangement.
Two hydrogen atoms The chemical formula
symbolically represents the type
and number of each element
present.

1.7
 Many nonmetals occur as diatomic
(made up of two atoms) molecules

H2 N2 O2 Cl2

1.7
Naming Binary Compounds
1. Name the more metallic element first, followed by the name of
the less metallic element, modified with the suffix “ide”

KBr postassium bromide

BeO beryllium oxide

ZnS zinc sulfide

1.8
Naming Binary Compounds

2. Prefixes are used to designate the number of each type

of element:
number of atoms prefix
1 mono
2 di
3 tri
4 tetra
5 penta
6 hexa
7 hepta
8 octa
9 nona
10 deca

1.8
 Chemical Equations
 Reactant(s) -> Product(s)
 Carbon + Oxygen -> Carbon Dioxide
 C (s) + O2 (g) -> CO2 (g)

•Reactant bonds are broken; Product bonds are made

•Same number and type of atoms on both sides of equation
Chemical reactions are characterized by the rearrangement
of atoms when reactants are transformed into products

This is an example of a
C + O2 CO combustion reaction
reactants product

But the number of atoms on each side of the arrow

must be equal (Law of Conservation of Mass)

2 C + O2 2 CO (balanced)

2 carbon atoms two carbon atoms

2 oxygen atoms two oxygen atoms

1.9
2C + O2 2 CO

1.9
Balancing equations:
-if an element is present in just one compound on each
side, balance it first
-balance anything that exists as a free element last
- balance polyatomic ions as a unit
- check when done – same number of atoms, and same
total charge on both sides

C3H8 + O2 CO2 + H2O

C3H8 + 5 O2 3 CO2 + 4 H2O

3 C atoms 3 C atoms
8 H atoms 8 H atoms
10 O atoms 10 O atoms
1.9
 Direct Source of Sulfur Trioxide

Coal + O2 SO2
(1-3% sulfur)

2 SO2 + O2 2 SO3

Good News: Since 1985 we have seen a 25% reduction in SO2

emissions in the U.S.

1.11
 Direct Source of Nitrogen Oxides

High temperatures
from auto engine or
N2 + O2 + high temp 2 NO coal-fired power
(nitrogen oxide) plant

NO is very reactive: Simplified version of

chemistry that occurs
2 NO + O2 2 NO2

1.11
Properties of the troposphere

Atmospheric pressure
changes with altitude
temperature changes

In Troposphere :
Altitude increases  P and
T decrease

In Thermosphere :
Altitude increases  P
decrease, T increases
 Quality of The Air
 Air Quality Index (AQI) : USA
 Air Pollution Index (API) : Hong Kong, China,
Malaysia
 Indeks Standar Pencamaran Udara (ISPU) :
(Air Pollution Standard Index /APSI)
Indonesia
Air Quality standards
How are standards
established?
Through risk assessment
--consider the toxicity of the
compound and the exposure.

Toxicity: How dangerous a

compound is.

Exposure: Refers to the length

of contact with the pollutant and
the concentration of the
pollutant
EPA’s Air Quality Index

Air Quality Index Levels of Health Colors

(AQI) Values Concern
When the AQI ...air quality ...as symbolized
is in this range: conditions are: by this color:
050 Good Green
51–100 Moderate Yellow
101–150 Unhealthy for Orange
sensitive groups
151–200 Unhealthy Red
201–300 Very unhealthy Purple
301–500 Hazardous Maroon
1.3
 Indonesian Air Quality Index
(indeks standar pencemaran
udara =ISPU)
 Pollutant parameters :
 Carbon monoksida (CO)
 Nitrogen (NO2)
 Ozone (O3)
 Sulfur dioxide (SO2)
 Particulate Matter (PM10)
Hubungan ISPU dan kondisi lingkungan
Karbon Sulfur dioksida
Kategori Rentang Nitrogen (NO2) Ozon (O3) Partikulat
monoksida (CO) (SO2)
Luka pada
Luka pada
Beberapa spesies
Beberapa spesies
tumbuhan akibat
Baik 0-50 Tidak ada efek Sedikit berbau kombinasi dengan
tumbuhan akibat Tidak ada efek
kombinasi dengan
SO2 (Selama 4
O3 (Selama 4 Jam)
Jam)

Perubahan kimia Luka pada Luka pada

Terjadi penurunan
Sedang 51 - 100 darah tapi tidak Berbau Beberapa spesies Beberapa spesies
pada jarak pandang
terdeteksi tumbuhan tumbuhan

Bau dan kehilangan

Peningkatan pada warna. Peningkatan Penurunan Jarak pandang turun
kardiovaskular pada reaktivitas kemampuan pada Bau, Meningkatnya dan terjadi
Tidak Sehat 101 - 199 perokok yang sakit pembuluh atlit yang berlatih kerusakan tanaman pengotoran debu di
jantung tenggorokan pada keras mana-mana
penderita asma
Meningkatnya
Olah raga ringan
kardiovaskular pada
mengakibatkan
orang bukan perokok Meningkatnya Meningkatnya Meningkatnya
pengaruh
Sangat yang berpenyakit sensitivitas pasien sensitivitas pada sensitivitas pada
Tidak Sehat
200-299 Jantung, dan akan yang berpenyakit
parnafasan pada
pasien berpenyakit pasien berpenyakit
pasien yang
tampak beberapa asma dan bronchitis asma dan bronchitis asma dan bronchitis
berpenyaklt paru-
kelemahan yang terlihat
paru kronis
secara nyata

Berbahaya 300 - lebih Tingkat yang berbahaya bagi semua populasi yang terpapar
 API- Malaysia
0-50 Good
51-100 Moderate
101-200 Unhealthy
201-300 Very unhealthy
301- Hazardous
 Air Pollution
 Air pollutants are airborne particles and gasses that
occur in concentrations that endanger the health and
well-being of organisms or disrupt the orderly
functioning of the environment.
 Pollutants can be grouped into two categories:
 (1) primary pollutants, which are emitted directly from
identifiable sources, and
 (2) secondary pollutants, which are produced in the
atmosphere when certain chemical reactions take place
among primary pollutants.
 Primary Pollutants
The major primary pollutants include:
 particulate matter (PM),
 sulfur dioxide,
 nitrogen oxides,
 volatile organic compounds (VOCs),
 carbon monoxide, and
 lead.
 Secondary Pollutants
 Atmospheric sulfuric acid is one example of a
secondary pollutant.
 Air pollution in urban and industrial areas is often
called smog.
 Photochemical smog, a noxious mixture of gases and
particles, is produced when strong sunlight triggers
photochemical reactions in the atmosphere.
 The major component of photochemical smog is
ozone.
 Although considerable progress has been made in
controlling air pollution, the quality of the air we
breathe remains a serious public health problem.
 Major Sources of Air Pollutants

 Combustion of coal in coal burning power

plants
 Coal is mostly Carbon; The main impurity in coal is
sulfur, S.
 Combustion of fuel in car, trucks, and other
vehicles.
 Sulfur Oxides, SOx
SO2, SO3
When coal is burned, so is the Sulfur impurity

S + O2 SO2
The SO2 then burns to produce SO3.

2 SO2 + 1 O2 2 SO3
 SO3 gas then dissolve in water to
make a component of acid rain,
H2SO4 (aq).

SO3 (g) + H2O (l) H2SO4 (aq)

In general; nonmetal oxides dissolve in water to make it acidic

 Problems with SOx
1. SOx are respiratory irritants
2. SOx dissolve in water to make a component
of acid rain.
Scrubber
 Carbon Monoxide, CO

 COMPLETE COMBUSTION
CxHy (l) + O2 (g) -> CO2 (g) + H2O (g)

 INCOMPLETE COMBUSTION
CxHy (l) + O2 (g) -> CO (g) + H2O (g) +VOC (g)
 Carbon Monoxide, CO

50 ppm Impair human reflexes; affect vision

100 ppm Headache, fatigue, dizziness, shortness of

breath

750 ppm Unconsciousness, death

 Reducing CO Emissions

1. Post Combustion
2. Change/Replace Combustion Process
3. Pre-Combustion
 Catalytic Converter

Principles of Environmental Chemistry; by James E Girard;Jones and Bartlett Publisher, Inc; 2005, pg121
Catalytic converters are used to catalyze the conversion of CO to CO2

The converters also reduce the amount of

Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) from
tailpipe exhaust

1.11
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC)

 Formed with CO during Incomplete

Combustion

 Ways to Reduce are the Same as CO

 Precursor to Nitrogen Dioxide, NO2, and

Ozone, O3, Formation
 Lead

1. Sources
• Tetraethyl lead (TEL) added to gasoline to make
it burn more smoothly, “anti-knocking” agent

Leaded Fuel banned in United States; 1997

2. Effects
 Toxic
 Can cause neurological problems in kids
 Nitrogen Oxides, NOx
NO, NO2

 Low Temperatures
N2 (g) + O2 (g) -> No Reactions

 High Temperatures/ High Pressure

1. N2 (g) + O2 (g) -> 2 NO(g)
2. NO (g) + O2 (g) -> 2 NO2 (g)
 Health Effects of Nitrogen Oxides
 Respiratory Irritant-Aggravate conditions like
chronic bronchitis and asthma
 Precursor to Ozone, O3, formation
 Nitrogen Oxides Dissolve in Water to Make it
Acidic
NO(g) + NO2 (g) + H2O (l)

HNO3 (aq) + HNO2 (aq)

* Unbalanced equation
 Low Temperature
 Maximize VOC and CO

 High Temperature
 Maximize NOx
Role of VOC in formation of NO2
Normally, the following reaction is very slow

NO (g) + O2 (g) -> 2 NO2 (g)

VOC’s and the hydroxyl radical (*OH) form an intermediate

which reacts with oxygen to make the above reaction happen
at a faster rate.
 Photochemical Air
Pollutants
Secondary Air Pollutants Produced by
Sunlight

Ozone, O3, is a photochemical air pollutant and is formed by….

NOx + Sunlight -> Ozone (Photochemical Pollutants)
VOC + Sunlight -> Ozone (Photochemical Pollutants)
Primary Air Pollutant Secondary Air Pollutant

NO NO2

HNO2, HNO3

O3 (photochemical)
http:/www.HowStuffWorks.com

Photochemical Smog
 Formation of Photochemical Air
Pollutant; Ozone, O3

1. NO2 + Sunlight  NO + O

2. O + O2  O 3
http://www.airnow.gov/index.cfm?action=jump.jump_ozone
Raven/Berg; Environment 4/e, John Wiley and Sons Inc, p 444, Figure 19.7
 Problems with Ozone, O3
 Lung Irritant,can cause coughing
 Makes Eyes Burn
 Reacts with Other Air Pollutants (like VOC) to
Make Components of Photochemical Smog
 Powerful Oxidizing Agent
 Causes rubber to crack
 Damages Plants
 Ozone Can Contribute to Chemical
Weathering in Automobile Tires

Chemistry; The Science in Context; Thomas R Gilbert, Rein V Kirss, and Geoffrey
Davies, Norton Publishers, 2004.
http:/www.HowStuffWorks.com

Ozone Damaged Plant

http:/www.HowStuffWorks.com

Effect of Season
On Ozone
Concentrations in
Troposphere
 Particulate Matter (PM)
• Aerosols
Particles of Dispersed • Dust
Matter (solid or liquid) • Fumes
that are larger than • Mist/Fog
individual molecules
• Smoke, Soot, Ash
• Smog
• Pollen

PM10; avg diameter less than 10 microns

PM2.5; avg diameter less than 2.5 microns
 Effect of Particulate Matter
 Impair breathing since small enough to get to
lungs
 Reduce visibility since large enough to scatter
light.
 Toxic chemicals can adsorb to surface (Cd, Ni,
pesticides)
Reducing Particulate Pollution From
Man-Made Sources

a) Cyclone Precipitator
b) Electrostatic Precipitator
c) Baghouses
 Cyclone
Precipitator
Electrostatic
Precipitator
Baghouse
Sources of Air Pollutants
Sources of Air Pollutants
(continued)
 Indoor Air Pollution
1. Combustion
• NOx, CO, VOC
• Cigarettes, burning candles
2. Indoor VOC
• Paint, fingernail polish, glues…
3. Radon Gas
Indoor Air Pollutants?

1.14
Indoor Air Pollution
Uranium Radioactive Decay Series
Lead-214
27 minutes

Polonium-218
187 seconds

Radon-222 Air
3.8 days

Radium-226
1600 years Soil

5 Transformations
Rock
Uranium – 238
4.5 billion years
Infiltration
Of Radon
Gas
 Air Pollution Occurrences
 The most obvious factor influencing air pollution is the
quantity of contaminants emitted into the atmosphere.
 However, when air pollution episodes take place, they are not
generally the result of a drastic increase in the output of
pollutants; instead, they occur because of changes in certain
atmospheric conditions.
 Two of the most important atmospheric conditions affecting
the dispersion of pollutants are:
 (1) the strength of the wind and
 (2) the stability of the air.
 Air Mixing
 The direct effect of wind speed is to influence the
concentration of pollutants.
 Atmospheric stability determines the extent to which vertical
motions will mix the pollution with cleaner air above the
surface layers.
 The vertical distance between Earth's surface and the height to
which convectional movements extend is called the mixing
depth.
 Generally, the greater the mixing depth, the better the air
quality.
 Inversions
 Temperature inversions represent a situation in which the
atmosphere is very stable and the mixing depth is significantly
restricted.
 When an inversion exists and winds are light, diffusion is
inhibited and high pollution concentrations are to be expected
in areas where pollution sources exist.
 Surface temperature inversions form because the ground is a
more effective radiator than the air above. Inversions aloft are
associated with sinking air that characterizes centers of high
air pressure (anticyclones).
Inversion
This is an example
of a generalized
temperature profile
for a surface
inversion.

Temperature-profile
changes in bottom
diagram after the
sun has heated the
surface.
 HOW CAN WE STOP AIR
POLLUTION?
 Stop producing it in the first place.
 Government can pass laws that forbid or limit
the use off chemicals that cause pollution.
 Build cars that burn less gasoline.
 Recycling helps cut down on pollution.