Chapter 2

BASIC
EXPERIMENTS
 2-1
TENSILE TEST
 2-1
TENSILE TEST
 2-1
TENSILE TEST
• NominaI stress

Load divided by originaI cross sectional area

𝑃
𝜎𝑛 =
𝐴0
 2-1
TENSILE TEST
• Conventional or engineering strain

Increase in length per unit original length

𝑙 − 𝑙0
𝜖=
𝑙0
• A: Proportional limit: Linear part of the curve
extends up to the point A. It is in this range that
the linear theory of elasticity holds.

• B: elastic limit, or yield point

• offset yield strength or proof strength: yield point

is poorly defined. It t is arbitrarily taken to be at
some fixed value of permanent strain, such as 0.2
per cent strain.
• Plastic deformation : Permanent deformation
beyond elastic limit. Strain at e1astic limit is of
the order of magnitude of 0.001 or 0.1 per cent.
• Stress required for further plastic flow is called
flow stress.
• Point C: Point of maximum load, or point of
instability Load is a maximum.
• Point D: specimen "necks down" rapidly and
fractures at D.
TRUE STRESS-STRAIN CURVE
• True stress:
𝑃 𝑃𝑙
𝜎= =
𝐴 𝐴0 𝑙0

Condition: Volume incompressibility gives

𝐴0 𝑙0 = 𝐴𝑙
• Tensile strength, or ultimate stress: Stress at
the maximum load point C

• Between elastic limit B and maximum load

point C

𝜖 = 𝜀𝑒 + 𝜖𝑝
• Relation between true and nominal stress:

𝜎 = 𝜎𝑛 1 + 𝜀
Using the relations:
𝑙
𝜀 = −1
𝑙0
𝑙 𝜎
=
𝑙0 𝜎𝑛
• Natural, logarithmic or true strain

𝑑𝑙
𝑑𝜀 ҧ =
𝑙

𝑙
𝑑𝑙 𝑙
𝜀ҧ = න = 𝑙𝑛
𝑙0 𝑙 𝑙0
• Relation between true strain and engineering
strain:

𝑙
=1+𝜀
𝑙0

𝜀 ҧ = 𝑙𝑛 1 + 𝜀
• Incompressibility condition in terms of true
strain:

𝜀ഥ1 + 𝜀ഥ2 + 𝜀ഥ3 = 0

• Incompressibility condition in terms of
engineering strain:

1 + 𝜀1 1 + 𝜀2 1 + 𝜀3 − 1 = 0

which for small strain becomes:

𝜀1 + 𝜀2 + 𝜀3 = 0
True stress-strain curve
• The true stress will always increase until the
rupture point and does not have a maximum at
the point where the load starts dropping.
• True stress at the point of maximum load can
be found as follows:
• By definition, true stress

𝑃 = 𝜎𝐴

• At point of maximum load

𝑑𝑃 = 𝜎𝑑𝐴 + 𝐴𝑑𝜎 = 0

𝑑𝜎 𝑑𝐴
=-
𝜎 𝐴
• Incompressibility condition gives

𝐴𝑙 = 𝐴0 𝑙0

𝐴𝑑𝑙 + 𝑙𝑑𝐴 = 0

𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑙
=−
𝐴 𝑙
𝑑𝜎 𝑑𝑙
= = 𝜀ҧ
𝜎 𝑙

𝑑𝜎
=𝜎
𝑑𝜀 ҧ

𝑑𝜎 𝜎
=
𝑑𝜀 1 + 𝜀
Bauschinger Effect
Effect of Strain Rate
Effect of Temperature
Stress-Strain: Dynamic and Kinematic
Models
1. Perfectly elastic, brittle
Rigid, perfectly plastic
Rigid linear strain hardening
Elastic perfectly plastic
Elastic linear strain hardening