Basic Insulation & Power Factor Theory: Rick Youngblood Client Service Engineer

Knowledge Is Power SM
Apparatus Maintenance and Power Management

for Energy Delivery
Basic Insulation
&
Power Factor Theory
Rick Youngblood
Client Service Engineer
Objectives
 Review the Basic Insulation Models

 Review Capacitance and It’s Properties
 Review A-C Dielectric Loss
 Define Power Factor
for Energy Delivery
What is a Doble Test?...
The Doble insulation test is a measurement
of the fundamental AC electrical
characteristics of insulation.
•Changes in the electrical characteristics can
indicate an increased or decreased size of
the insulation system, the presence or
absence of an insulation component or the
movement of the conductors. These
changes can effect the performance of the
insulation system.
for Energy Delivery
What is a Doble Test?...
•The electrical characteristics can also

indicate moisture, insulation deterioration,
destructive agents or ionization that can
effect the dielectric strength and
serviceability of the insulation.
•Doble tests are not destructive.
for Energy Delivery
Why Doble Test???
 Enhances Safety to Personnel

 Enhance System Reliability
 Minimize Damage to Apparatus
 Minimize Loss of Revenue
 Extension of Apparatus Life
 Degradation of Insulation, if detected before failure, can generally
be restored to its original condition
 Defer replacement costs
for Energy Delivery
Why Doble Test???
 Better Utilization of Resources

 Inspection interval may be safely extended or
shortened to utilize resources efficiently and
effectively
 Acceptance of New Apparatus
 Verify that new apparatus meets purchased
specification and agrees with factory test reports
 Assures proper field assembly
for Energy Delivery
Insulation
IEEE Defines Insulation as:

“Material or a combination of suitable non-
conducting material that provides electrical
isolation of two parts at different voltages.”
for Energy Delivery
Electrically speaking! . . .
 Insulator: The electrons are held firmly by the

nucleus, and a relatively high potential difference
produces only a very small movement of electrons
from atom to atom.
 Conductor: The electrons are loosely held by the

nucleus and are able to move readily from atom to
atom.
for Energy Delivery
Insulation vs. Dielectric . . .
 Insulation usually suggests simply and generally

that the medium or material is a poor conductor of
electricity (i.e. current)
 Dielectric implies that the medium or material has

specific measurable properties such as: Dielectric
Strength, Dielectric Absorption, Dielectric
Constant, Dielectric Loss and Power Factor.
 Dielectric material can be polarized
for Energy Delivery
Polarization of Dielectric Materials
for Energy Delivery
Chemically speaking! . . .
 Insulator: The electrons are held firmly by the

nucleus, and a relatively high potential difference
produces only a very small movement of electrons
from atom to atom.
 Conductor: The electrons are loosely held by the

nucleus and are able to move readily from atom to
atom.
 Semiconductor acts as both depending on the applied
field
for Energy Delivery
Examples of Material With
Insulating Properties
Gaseous Liquid Solid
High Vacuum Hydrocarbon- Cellulose

Based Oil
Air Silicone Oil Porcelain
Sulfur Hexafluoride Distilled Water Phenolics

(SF6)
for Energy Delivery
Dielectric Characteristics
Basically looking for deterioration of the Insulation
 Changes in original characteristics can be:
– Electrical
– Mechanical
– Thermal
– Chemical
 Detected by:
– Destructive Tests
– Non-Destructive Tests
for Energy Delivery
Destructive & Non-destructive
 Destructive Test-
 Test in which the specimen will be broken down
or destroyed as a requirement of the test
 Non-destructive Test-
 High Stress Test - specimen is submitted to a
voltage above the level at which it normally
operates
 Low Stress Test - specimen is submitted to a
voltage below the level at which it normally
operates
 Zero Stress Test - specimen has no possibility
of damage in the process of performing the test
for Energy Delivery
Doble Test Parameters
Basic Insulation Characteristics
 Capacitance (Total Charging Current)
 Dielectric Loss
 Power Factor
 Power Factor Change With Test Voltage (Tip-up)
Other Characteristics
 Transformer Exciting Current

 Transformer Voltage Ratio
 Leakage Reactance
 Sweep Frequency Response Analysis
for Energy Delivery
Insulating System
Insulating system is basically two plates separated

by one or more dielectrics. One plate is at a high
potential and the other at a lower or ground
potential.
Current generated by polar contaminants in the
dielectric insulation dielectric shows up as Watts.
Heat/Watts
for Energy Delivery
Dielectric Properties . . .
 Dielectric Strength
 Dielectric Absorption
 Dielectric Constant
 Dielectric Loss
 Power Factor
for Energy Delivery
The Capacitor
Plates
d
A
Dielectric
Two conducting plates with area A separated by a dielectric

with a thickness of d and dielectric constant e
for Energy Delivery
Capacitance
Ae
C= 4pd A
d
C = Capacitance
e = dielectric constant
d = Distance between plates
•All of these variables are Physical

Parameters
for Energy Delivery
Dielectric Constant
• In 1836, Michael Faraday (the father of the Capacitance -- Just
look at his name) discovered that when the material between
the plates of a capacitor were changed to another insulating
material, the capacitance would change.
• This factor is the dielectric constant e
• By definition the dielectric constant of a Vacuum is 1.0. All other
dielectric constants are referenced to this standard.
Oil e=2.2
Vacuum
Cvacuum=10 pF Coil = e x CVacuum = 22 pF

for Energy Delivery
Capacitance Change due to Change in Area of
Plate
e (Dielectric constant) & d (Distance between
plates) are constant.
Area of the plates doubles.

Ae
C=
d d 4pd
A A
(2A)e
2C =
4pd
for Energy Delivery
Various Dielectric Constants
 Material Constant
 Vacuum 1.0
 Air 1.000549
 Mica 5.4
 Dry Paper 2
 Porcelain 7
 Oil 2.2
 Silicone Fluid 2.75
 Water (20o C) 80
The Dielectric Constant is a measure of the

material’s capacitance relative to that of a
vacuum
for Energy Delivery
2 Conditions Required for Charges to Form
on the Plates of Capacitors
1. There must be a potential difference

across the plates.
2. The plates must be in relative

proximity to each other
for Energy Delivery
Both conditions
for charge
Perfect Vacuum formation have
+  Distance
- not been met 
NO CHARGE
- - - - To change
+ +
+ + + + d capacitance,
+ Perfect Vacuum
-
- - - - change voltage
- - - - or change d.
for Energy Delivery
Why We Analyze Current And Capacitance Readings
Ideal Loss-less Capacitance is affected by

Specimen physical changes:
Cp = Ae/d
High-Voltage Test Cable
Center Conductor
where A = area of capacitor plates
Ic Oil: e= 2.1
Porcelain: e = 7.0
e = dielectric constant (ratio
Cp Paper: e = 2.0 of material to air’s ability to
conduct electricity)
Current & Loss Flange
Meter d = distance between
Guard Test Test-Set Ground
capacitor plates
Ground Lead
Test Mode-GST
Ground
Current is directly related to capacitance and E is

the applied voltage IE: 10KV
Ic = E 2pf C
So changes in either reading indicate physical
changes in the insulation system.
for Energy Delivery
Example: Oil leaking from an Insulation System
Oil = 2.1
Porcelain = 7.0 Given three dielectrics in series the
Paper = 2.0 dielectric constant e is:
Air = 1.0
2.1 x 7.0 x 2.0
ebefore = = 2.65
2.1 + 7.0 + 2.0
If the Oil leaks out and is replaced by air...
1 x 7.0 x 2.0
eafter = = 1.4
1 + 7.0 + 2.0
C => It
for Energy Delivery
Area Distance and Dielectric Constants
Cap Area IC Cap =Area X Dielectric Con

Distance
Cap Area IC
Ic =E 2Π f C
Cap Dist IC
Cap Dist IC
Cap DC IC
Cap DC IC
for Energy Delivery
The Perfect Capacitor
The perfect capacitor
 Passes no Direct
Current
 Alternating Current
leads the voltage by
90 degrees
Perfect
Capacitor
for Energy Delivery
Current & Capacitance
Ic and C represent PHYSICAL characteristics of

insulation such as:
Area of plates (insulation)
Distance between the plates
Dielectric constant of the insulation
for Energy Delivery
Capacitor Current
1.5
0.5
Magnitude
Voltage
0
Current
0 90 180 270 360 450 540 630
-0.5
-1
-1.5
Angle
for Energy Delivery
POWER IS. . .
S = P  jQ
S = Apparent Power
P = Real Power
Q = Reactive Power
j = Phase shift is 90 - lead / + lag
IMPEDANCE IS. . .
Z = R + X
Z = Impedance
R = Resistance
X = Reactance
for Energy Delivery
V-I Phase Relationship
Q2 Q1
- +
Q3 Q4
-
for Energy Delivery
Capacitor Current Vector Diagram
Alternating capacitance current

IC leads the voltage by 90 degrees
q=90o
E
for Energy Delivery
Typical Insulation System
IT
IC IR ~ 0
Good Insulation:
Has a very low
power factor CP
RP
• IR<<IC for most insulation
systems, IC ~ IT
for Energy Delivery
Basic Theory
Capacitors, Resistors, and Inductors
E

IC IR IL
  
0 90 180 270 360
for Energy Delivery
for Energy Delivery
Simplified Equivalent Circuits of an Insulation
Specimen
RS
CP RP
CS
Series Circuit (a) Parallel Circuit (b)

for Energy Delivery
Capacitive Current
for Energy Delivery
• (Capacitive) current & capacitance are linked
If the capacitance of an insulation specimen
increases, then the capacitive current
increases. Generally, the total charging current
will also increase. Ic = E 2pf C
• Current & capacitance are size dependent.
• A change in capacitance & current indicate

that something has physically changed with the
specimen under test.
for Energy Delivery
for Energy Delivery
for Energy Delivery
Capacitance
Ae
C= 4pd A
d
C = Capacitance
e = dielectric constant
d = Distance between plates
•All of these variables are Physical

Parameters
for Energy Delivery
• (Capacitive) current & capacitance are linked
If the capacitance of an insulation specimen
increases, then the capacitive current
increases. Generally, the total charging current
will also increase. Ic = E 2pf C
• Current & capacitance are size dependent.
• A change in capacitance & current indicate

that something has physically changed with the
specimen under test.
for Energy Delivery
Winding Movement Example
Insulation 1995 New 1996 Fault % Difference
CH pF 2155 2159 0.2
CHL pF 4360 3886 -10.9
CL pF 8291 9339 12.6
for Energy Delivery
Changes in Current/Capacitance
 Significance
 Indicate a physical change
• Bushings - shorting of capacitive layers
• Transformers - movement of core/coils
• Arresters - broken elements
Physical
for Energy Delivery
We have modeled an insulation system, or a
dielectric, with a capacitor or an energy-storing device.
While energy is definitely stored in a dielectric, energy

is also dissipated in a dielectric.
Our model is somewhat deficient
We can improve our model with the addition of

another electrical element.
The Resistor
for Energy Delivery
Dielectric Loss, Watts Relationships
Resistance, Loss
for Energy Delivery
Specimen
RS
CP RP
CS
Series Circuit (a) Parallel Circuit (b)

for Energy Delivery
The Perfect Resistor
 The perfect resistor
 Stores no charge
 Current is always in
phase with the voltage
Perfect
Resistor
The Resistor represents the energy-dissipating tendency of the

insulating material (i.e., the Dielectric Loss portion of the
insulating material).
for Energy Delivery
Resistor Current
1.5
0.5
Magnitude
Voltage
0
IR
0 90 180 270 360 450 540 630
-0.5
-1
-1.5
Angle
for Energy Delivery
Resistor Current Vector Diagram
Current through a
resistor is in phase with
the voltage.
θ= 0 °
IR
E
for Energy Delivery
Resistor Phasor Relationship
Quadrant
#2 #1
#3 #4
for Energy Delivery
Dielectric Loss, Watts
• In a no-loss insulation system, the current is

purely due to the capacitance. IR = 0
• As the insulation deteriorates, the watts will
increase.
• An increase in polar contaminates will
increase the losses in the insulation system.
• An increase in partial discharge activity will
increase the measured losses.
for Energy Delivery
Dielectric Loss
• Loss in our dielectric in the form of heat
• Given in terms of Watts.
• Size dependent
Watts = Contamination + Deterioration
Contamination = Water + Carbon + Dirt

Deterioration = Carbon + Partial Discharge
A Measure of Quality
Low Losses = Good Quality = Healthy Dielectric
for Energy Delivery
Specimen
E
IT = I C + I R
IT
You can see why the
IC IR total charging current, IT,
 capacitive current, IC.
CP RP However, since IR is
typically very small in
an insulation system, it
is considered
negligible.  IT  IC
Parallel Circuit
for Energy Delivery
Why We Analyze Watts-Loss
High-Voltage Test Cable
It
Ic R
Current & Loss Ir

Meter
Guard Test Test-Set Ground

Ground Lead
Test Mode-GST
Ground
IC IT
Real World
Specimen With
Slight Loss
Component R
O
IR E
Measured current, with capacitive and resistive

components (with greatly exaggerated resistive
component for visual clarity)
for Energy Delivery
 Changes in Capacitance and Current
– Physical Change of the Insulator
 Changes is Dielectric Loss

– Change in the Quality of the Dielectric
i.e. Contamination/Deterioration
for Energy Delivery
Power Factor
for Energy Delivery
Definition of Power Factor
Power factor is a measurement of

the efficiency of insulation
system.
for Energy Delivery
Power Factor Is:
 Independent of specimen size

 Non-destructive
 Temperature sensitive
 Not time dependent
for Energy Delivery
The Term Power Factor Describes:
The phase angle relationship between the applied

voltage across and the current through a specimen.
The ratio of the real or average power to the
apparent power.
The efficiency of a power system in terms of real
and reactive power flows.
for Energy Delivery
Limits of % P.F.
Capacitor Resistor
PF = 0% PF = 100%
for Energy Delivery
Basic Power Factor
IT=Total Current IC=Capacitive Current
IR=Resistive Current E=Applied Voltage
0% PF q =Power Factor Angle IT
IT
IC
IC IR
E CP RP
O
100% PF
IR E
for Energy Delivery
Power Factor Relationships
q () P. F. (%)
90 0 (Capacitance only)
89.714 0.5
89.427 1.0
45 70.7
30 86.6
0 100 (Resistance only)
for Energy Delivery
What Is Power Factor (PF)?
Watts = E x IR
Watts = E  I  Cosine q T
Watts
PF = Cosine q =
Real Power
EI T
Apparent Power
EI I
= = R R
EI I T T
for Energy Delivery
What Is Power Factor (PF)?
Power Factor = W = Real Power

IT *E Apparent Power
To express power factor in percent (% PF), multiply by 100:
% PF = W X100
mA X10-3*10 X103
= W X10 10 kV equivalent values

mA
for Energy Delivery
Power Factor Is Size Independent
IC2 IT2
Specimen 1: 5 MVA Transformer
Specimen 2: 10MVA Transformer
IC1 IT1
IR1 IR2 E
Power Factor is an evaluation of the quality of the insulation

and is size independent
remains the same regardless of the size of the transformer
for Energy Delivery
Is the Doble Test Effective for Detecting Defective
Insulation?
PF = .5 PF = .5 PF = .5 PF = .5
1)
2 pF 2 pF 2 pF 2 pF
.5 + .5 + .5 + .5
PF = 
= .5
4
1 1 1 1 1
= + + + c=
1
pF
c 2 2 2 2 2
PF = .5 PF = .5 PF =2.5 PF = .5
.5x 3 + 2.5 1
PF = 
= 1.0 c= pF
4 2
2 pF 2 pF 2 pF 2 pF
for Energy Delivery
Is the Doble Test Effective for Detecting Defective
Insulation?
2) PF = .5 PF = .5 PF = .5
2 pF 2 pF 2 pF
.5+.5+.5
PF = =.5
3
1 1 1 1
c
= + + = 15
2 2 2
. c =.667
for Energy Delivery
Analysis of Percent Power Factor
 Compare to limits published by Doble

 Compare to previous results
 Compare among similar or sister units
 Examine the trend
 Do not use PF if current is less than 300A
for Energy Delivery
Power Factor vs. Dissipation Factor
IC IT
I
Power Factor = COS Q = R
I
d T
I
Dissipation Factor = TAN d = R
Q I C
IR E
Q % PF (% COS Q) d % DF (% TAN )
90 0 0 0
89.71 .500 .29 .500
84.26 10.00 5.74 10.05
0 100.00 90 INFINITY
for Energy Delivery
Voids and the Power Factor Tip-Up
Test
When we closely examine insulation, very small gaps

or “voids” exist. These voids develop an electrostatic
potential on their surfaces. These small gaps become
ionized: Partial Discharge.
Voids
for Energy Delivery
Power Factor Vs. Test Voltage
As test voltage is increased, the power factor will increase depending
on the void density.
Tip-Up = Power Factor at Line-to-ground voltage -

Power Factor at 25% Line-to-ground voltage
%PF
%PF @ L-G
%PF @ 25% L-G
E
25% L-G L-G
Tip-up occurs in dry-type insulation specimens such as Dry Type

Transformer, generators, etc.….
for Energy Delivery
Power Factor Vs. Test Voltage
As test voltage is increased, the power factor will decrease
depending on resistance and contamination.
Tip-Down = Power Factor at Line-to-ground voltage -

Power Factor at 25% Line-to-ground voltage
Tip down will in many case create negative PF because of
phase shift due to high resistance such as bad core grounds
or contamination between phase or ground.
for Energy Delivery

Basic Insulation & Power Factor Theory: Rick Youngblood Client Service Engineer

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Knowledge Is Power SM

Apparatus Maintenance and Power Management

 Review the Basic Insulation Models

•The electrical characteristics can also

•Doble tests are not destructive.

 Enhances Safety to Personnel

 Better Utilization of Resources

IEEE Defines Insulation as:

 Insulator: The electrons are held firmly by the

 Conductor: The electrons are loosely held by the

 Insulation usually suggests simply and generally

 Dielectric implies that the medium or material has

 Insulator: The electrons are held firmly by the

 Conductor: The electrons are loosely held by the

Gaseous Liquid Solid

High Vacuum Hydrocarbon- Cellulose

Sulfur Hexafluoride Distilled Water Phenolics

 Transformer Exciting Current

Insulating system is basically two plates separated

Two conducting plates with area A separated by a dielectric

•All of these variables are Physical

Cvacuum=10 pF Coil = e x CVacuum = 22 pF

Area of the plates doubles.

The Dielectric Constant is a measure of the

1. There must be a potential difference

2. The plates must be in relative

Ideal Loss-less Capacitance is affected by

Current is directly related to capacitance and E is

If the Oil leaks out and is replaced by air...

Cap Area IC Cap =Area X Dielectric Con

Ic and C represent PHYSICAL characteristics of

Alternating capacitance current

Capacitors, Resistors, and Inductors

0 90 180 270 360

Series Circuit (a) Parallel Circuit (b)

• Current & capacitance are size dependent.

• A change in capacitance & current indicate

•All of these variables are Physical

• Current & capacitance are size dependent.

• A change in capacitance & current indicate

CH pF 2155 2159 0.2

CHL pF 4360 3886 -10.9

CL pF 8291 9339 12.6

While energy is definitely stored in a dielectric, energy

Our model is somewhat deficient

We can improve our model with the addition of

Series Circuit (a) Parallel Circuit (b)

The Resistor represents the energy-dissipating tendency of the

• In a no-loss insulation system, the current is

Watts = Contamination + Deterioration

Contamination = Water + Carbon + Dirt

Current & Loss Ir

Guard Test Test-Set Ground

Measured current, with capacitive and resistive

 Changes is Dielectric Loss

Power factor is a measurement of

 Independent of specimen size

The phase angle relationship between the applied

Power Factor = W = Real Power

To express power factor in percent (% PF), multiply by 100:

= W X10 10 kV equivalent values

Power Factor is an evaluation of the quality of the insulation

 Compare to limits published by Doble