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A fluid is a substance that deforms continuously when acted upon by a shear stress
𝑑𝑣𝑥
𝜏𝑦𝑥 = −𝜇 ; 𝜏𝑦𝑥 is shear stress = momentum flux
𝑑𝑦
Fluidity (𝜑)
1
- reciprocal of viscosity; 𝜑 =
𝜇
- unit is the reciprocal of poise (𝑐𝑚 − 𝑠 − 𝑔−1 )
1 𝑐𝑚−𝑠 −1 𝑔
* 1 𝑟ℎ𝑒 = ( ) =1
𝑔 𝑐𝑚−𝑠
Newtonian Fluid
- any fluid that obeys the Newton’s Law of Viscosity equation
𝑑𝑣𝑥
A linear relationship exists between the shear stress 𝜏 and shear rate
𝑑𝑦
Non-Newtonian Fluids
- blood
- toothpaste
- ketchup
- grease
- cake batter
- polymer melt
NON-NEWTONIAN FLUIDS
Food
- Emulsions (mayonnaise, ice cream)
- Foams (ice cream, whipped cream)
- Suspensions (mustard, chocolate)
- Gels (cheese)
Biofluids
- Suspensions (blood)
- Gel (mucin)
- Solution (spittle)
Pharmaceuticals
- Gels (creams, particle precursors)
- Aerosols (nasal spray)
Gases
increases with increasing temperature independent of pressure (up to 1000
kPa)
at > 1000 kPa, viscosity increases with increasing pressure
Liquids
decreases with increasing temperature independent of pressure
T = 30°C = 303.15 K
C1 = -226.08 C2 = 6805.7 C3 = 37.542 C4 = -0.060853 C5 = 1
−226.08+6805.7
+37.542 ln(303.15)+(−0.060853)(303.15)1 )
𝑒( 303.15
−13
= 1.166529527 𝑥 10
FLUID REGIME
LAMINAR (Viscous)
TURBULENT
Re = ρ u L / μ
= ρ u2 / (μ u / L)
=uL/ν
Re = Reynolds Number (non-dimensional)
ρ = density (kg/m3, lbm/ft3)
u = velocity based on the actual cross section area of the duct or pipe (m/s, ft/s)
μ = dynamic viscosity (Ns/m2, lbm/s ft)
L = characteristic length (m, ft)
The Reynolds Number for the flow in a duct or pipe can with the hydraulic diameter be expressed
as:
Re = ρ u dh / μ
= u dh / ν (2)
Where; dh = hydraulic diameter (m, ft)
Re = 7745.8 u dh / ν (2a)
Where;
In practice laminar flow is only actual for viscous fluids - like crude oil, fuel oil and other oils.
Example:
A Newtonian fluid with a dynamic or absolute viscosity of 0.38 Ns/m2 and a specific gravity
of 0.91 flows through a 25 mm diameter pipe with a velocity of 2.6 m/s.
Density can be calculated from the specific gravity of the fluid and the density of the specific
gravity reference water 1000 kg/m3 - as
Re = (910 kg/m3) (2.6 m/s) (25 mm) (10-3 m/mm) / (0.38 Ns/m2)
= 156 ((kg m / s2)/N)
= 156 ~ Laminar flow
1 (N) = 1 (kg m / s2)
An oil is being pumped inside a 10.00 diameter pipe at a Reynolds number of 2100.
The oil density is 855 kg/m^3 and the viscosity is 2.1 x 10-2 Pa-s.
Momentum transfer problems often involved using the conservation laws to analyze
the performance of devices
Airfoil
Pump
Two approaches two analyzing devices
MASS BALANCE
Note: Nuclear reaction basically generates a mass because it forms new element
Δm = 0
min =mout
V1(velocity, m/s) V2
ρ1 (density, kg/m3 ) ρ2
m1 = m2
● We cannot perform a mass balance in as reactive system, instead of a mass balance, use
mole balance (mole is not conserved in reactive system)
Continuity Equation
m1 = m2
ρ1A1V1 = ρ2A2V2 ρ1 = ρ2 = ρ
A1V1 = A2V2
q1 = q 2
B. If the fluid is incompressible and the pipe are identical (same size)
A1V1 = A2V2 A1 = A 2 = A
V1 = V2
A petroleum crude oil having a density of 892 kg/m 3 is flowing through the piping
arrangement shown at a total rate of 1.388 ×10-3 m3/s entering pipe 1. The flow divides equally in
each of pipes 3. The steel pipes are schedule 40 pipe. Calculate the following using SI units.
Assumptions
1. Steady State
2. Incompressible
2 in sch 40 = D1 =2.067 in
Assumptions
1. Steady State
2. Incompressible
V = 2.282 m/s = V1 = V2 m1 = ρ1 q1
A1= 5.33×10-3 m2 11.0075693 = 905 q1
ρ1 = 905 kg/m3 q1 = 0.01216306 m3/s
ρ2 = 880 kg/m3
A2= 2.30 ×10-3 m2 m2 = ρ2 q2
m1 = ρ1 A1V1 11.0075693 = 880 q2
q2 = 0.01250860148 m3/s
= 905 (5.33×10-3)(2.282)
= 11.0075693 kg/s m2 = G2 A2
m1 = m2 11.0075693 = G2 (2.30 ×10-3 m2)
G2=4785.899696
m2 = ρ2A2V2
11.0075693 = 880 (2.30 ×10-3 m2) (V2)
V2 = 5.438522381 m/s
Water at 30°C is to be pumped from a river to a storage tank at a rate of 0.43m 3/min. The piping
system consists of 8cm diameter pipes before the pump and 6cm diameter after the pipe. The
discharge into the tank (6cm dia) is 30m above the water level of the river. The pressure inside the
tank is kept at 200 kPa. If no heat is added to the water how many kW of energy is required for
pumping? Neglect the energy lost by the water moving past the walls of the pipes. Take the specific
volume of water at 0.001m3/kg.
FORMS OF ENERGY
1. Associated with mass (possessed/carried by fluid)
Internal Energy (U)
Potential Energy (PE)
Kinetic Energy (KE)
PV-Work (Wpv)
Internal Energy (U) – due to the atomic and molecular energy of the matter of which is
constituted
Potential Energy (PE) – due to the position of the fluid w/ respect to an arbitrary reference plain
𝑚 𝑓𝑡
g= 9.81 𝑠 2 = 32.174 𝑠 2
𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑓𝑡
gc= 32.174 𝑙𝑏𝑓 𝑠 2
𝑔
PE = m𝑔 z
𝑐
Kinetic Energy (KE) – due to fluid motion - Correction factor, α to account for velocity
distribution ranges 0.5 (laminar) to 1.0 (turbulent)
𝟏
KE = 𝟐α𝑔 mv2
𝑐
Flow (PV) Work (WPV) – work done by surroundings to push the fluid into the system
- energy necessary to cause flow in an open system
Wpv = PV
𝑉
Wpv = Fd = PA(𝐴) = PV
Heat (Q)
- Energy that flows into and out of the system as a result of temperature differs between a
system and its surroundings
- Positive if heat is transferred to the system from surroundings
- Negative if system to the surrounding
- Excludes heat generated by friction
Convention (IUPAC)
- Positive if the work done on the system
- Negative if the work is done by the
system
Specific Enthalpy
Ĥ = Û + Pv̂
The total Energy Balance
Energy balance from point 1 to point 2:
Energy input = energy output + accumulation
𝑑(𝑚𝑢)
Û1 + 𝐾𝐸1 + 𝑃𝐸1 + 𝑃1 v̂ 1 + 𝑄̇ + Ẇ𝑠 = Û2 + 𝐾𝐸2 + 𝑃𝐸2 + 𝑃2 v̂ 2 + 𝑄̇ +
𝑑𝑡
𝑉12 𝑉22 𝑑(𝑚𝑢)
ṁ (Û1 + + 𝑔𝑧1 + 𝑃1 v̂1 ) + 𝑄̇ + Ẇ𝑠 = ṁ (Û2 + + 𝑔𝑧2 + 𝑃2 v̂2 ) +
2α 2α 𝑑𝑡
𝑑(𝑚𝑢) 𝑉2
+ ṁ Δ (Û + + 𝑔𝑧 + Pv̂) = 𝑄̇ + Ẇ𝑠
𝑑𝑡 2α
But Ĥ = Û + Pv̂
So,
𝑑(𝑚𝑢) 𝑉2
+ ṁ Δ (Ĥ + + 𝑔𝑧) = 𝑄̇ + Ẇ𝑠
𝑑𝑡 2α
𝑑(𝑚𝑢)
Cancel out since the system is in steady state:
𝑑𝑡
𝑉2
ṁ Δ (Ĥ + + 𝑔𝑧) = 𝑄̇ + Ẇ𝑠
2α
𝑘𝑔 𝐽 𝑚 2 𝑚 2 𝐽 𝐽
SI: 𝑚= +
𝑠 𝑘𝑔 𝑠 2 𝑠 2 𝑠 𝑠
𝑓𝑡2 𝑓𝑡
𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑙𝑏𝑓 𝑓𝑡 𝑠2 𝑠2 𝑙𝑏𝑓 𝑓𝑡 𝑙𝑏𝑓 𝑓𝑡
English: 𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑓𝑡 𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑓𝑡 ft = +
𝑠 𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑠 𝑙𝑏𝑚
𝑙𝑏𝑓 𝑠2 𝑙𝑏𝑓 𝑠2
Assumptions:
- Steady state
- No heat loss in the tanks along the pipes
- Velocity in the tank is also zero.
-
Approach 1:
Get ρ and H from steam table at 93.3°C
ρ = 963.2561 kg/m3
Ĥ1 = 390, 838.1521 J/kg
𝑘𝑔 𝑚3 1 𝑚𝑖𝑛
m = ρ1q1 = (963.2561 ) (0.189 )( )
𝑚3 𝑚𝑖𝑛 60𝑠
m = 3.0343 kg/s
Get H2 from EB
3.0343 [(Ĥ2 – 390838.1521 + 9.81 (15.24)] = (-704x103) + 1.49x103
Ĥ2 = 159165.7264
Find T2 in the table
T2 = 38.01°C
Approach #2:
ṁ 𝛥 (𝐻 + 𝑔𝑧) = 𝑄 + 𝑊𝑠
Find ΔH
3.0343 [( 𝛥𝐻 + 9.81 (15.24)] = −704𝑥103 + 1.49𝑥103
𝑱
𝜟𝑯 = −𝟐𝟑𝟏𝟔𝟕𝟐. 𝟒𝟐𝟓𝟕
𝒌𝒈
Isobaric
ΔH = CpΔT
𝐽 1000𝑔
-231672.4257 = 4184𝑔 𝐾 ( ) (𝑇2 − 93.3)
1 𝑘𝑔
T2 = 37.92896.136°C