Geology 6690/7690 29 Sep 2017

Geodesy & Crustal Deformation

GPS Reference Frames
• GPS Reference Frame relates Earth-fixed to satellite
motion; reference frame effects are part of position error
• Glacial isostatic adjustment (GIA) is a transient effect
that is ~secular on decadal timescales; has vertical, horizontal
(including plate-like!) expression
• Early GPS reference frames were updated annually; now ~2x
per decade… Still find small adjustments to plate motion rates
• Geological evidence also exists for changes in plate motion
(perturbations of Australian hotspot paths during Ontong-Java
Plateau collision; decreasing Nubia-South America rates)

Read for Fri 29 Sep: Wahr §3.1-3.2 (67-75) © A.R. Lowry 2017
Read for Monday, Oct 2:
Herring et al. (2016) Plate Boundary Observatory and related
networks: GPS data analysis methods and geodetic
products, Reviews of Geophysics, 54(4), 759-808
 Introduction to Gravity
Gravity, Magnetic, & DC Electrical methods are all examples
of the Laplace equation of the form:
 2u = f (sources),
Where u is a potential,
is the gradient operator

Notation: Here, the arrow →

denotes a vector quantity;
the carat ^ denotes a unit direction vector.
Hence, the gradient operator is just a vector form of slope…
Because Laplace’s eqn always incorporates a potential u,
we call these “Potential Field Methods”.
 Gravity
We define the gravitational field as

And by Laplace’s equation,

(1)

given a single body of total mass M; here 2

G is universal gravitational constant = 6.672x10 -11 Nm
kg2
Integrating equation (1), we have

(2)
IF the body with mass M is spherical with constant (or
radially symmetric) density, equation (2) has a solution
given by:

Here r is distance from the center of mass (CoM);

rˆ is the direction vector pointing toward the CoM
Newton’s Law of gravitation:

So expresses the acceleration of m due to M!

has units of acceleration  Gal in cgs (= 0.01 m/s2)
On the Earth’s surface,

m/s2
HOWEVER, r is not radially symmetric in the Earth…
so is not constant!

Gravity methods look for anomalies, or perturbations,

from a reference value of at the Earth’s surface:
gobs
gref

r1 r0
 Example:
Global Free-Air Gravity Field from GRACE + GOCE + surface
measurements…

WGM2012 model from Bureau Gravimetríque International

 Gravity Measurements:
I. Absolute Gravity:
Measure the total field  time of a falling body
vacuum
• Must measure time to ~10-11 s;
prism
distance to ~10-9 m
laser for 1 mgal accuracy!

• Nevertheless this is the most

~2m accurate ground-based
technique

• Disadvantages: unwieldy; requires

a long occupation time to
measure
 Gravity Measurements:
II. Relative Gravity:
Measure difference in at two locations
• Pendulum: difference in period
k l
T = 2p » 2p l
g g
Errors in timing of period T  ~0.1 mgal
• Mass on a spring: MDg = kDl
or Dg = kDl/M spring
Worden and Lacoste-Romberg length l constant
k
are of this type
(“zero-length” spring of L-R yields mass M
errors around 6 mgal)
 Gravity Measurements:
III. Satellite Gravity:
Measure (from space) the height of an
equipotential surface (called the geoid, N)
relative to a
reference
ellipsoid
 Gravity Measurements:
III. Satellite Gravity:
Measure (from space) the height of an equipotential
surface (called the geoid, N) relative to a reference
ellipsoid
• Ocean Altimetry: Measure the height of the ocean
surface using radar or laser (e.g., JASON)

• Satellite Ranging: Satellite orbits follow the geoid

Measure orbits by ranging from the ground to the

satellite or ranging between two satellites
(e.g., GRACE)
 Example:
Global Free-Air Gravity Field from GRACE

Image from UT-CSR/NASA

GRACE and the modern
static (i.e., time-invariate)
geoid…

Note that the free air

gravity anomaly field
can be calculated
directly from the geoid.